Physiology and Behaviour of Plants

Table of Contents Preface xi Introducing plants 1 The beginning: the evolution of plants and the major divisions 1 Conquering the land 1 The evolution of lignin 6 Plants and mass extinction 7 Floristic kingdoms, biogeography and biomes 7 What makes a plant? 9 Structure of the whole plant 9 Structure of the plant cell 11 Chloroplasts and other plastids 11 The vacuole 14 Microbodies 14 The cell wall 14 Plasmodesmata 14 Photosynthesis: the ultimate in autotrophy 17 Light harvesting 17 Leaf form 17 Chlorophyll and the chloroplast 19 Converting light energy into chemical energy 21 Photosystem I 23 Photosystem II 25 The Calvin cycle 26 The cycle and its functions 26 Regeneration 26 CO[subscript 2] fixation or carboxylation 26 Synthetic flux 28 Regulatory enzymes 28 The remarkable role of RUBISCO 28 Photorespiration 30 The troubles with photosynthesis 30 The solution to the problem 31 Carbohydrate synthesis and storage 32 The major carbohydrates of photosynthesis 32 Sucrose 32 Starch 35 The fate of carbon fixed during photosynthesis 37 The efficiency of photosynthesis 40 Non-photosynthetic metabolism 43 Phloem transport 43 Structure of the phloem 44 Phloem loading 45 Phloem unloading 46 Coping with damage to the phloem 49 The sink tissues 50 How is sink strength dictated? 51 Metabolism of carbohydrate 54 Respiration 54 Storage of carbohydrate or lipid 56 Potatoes and starch storage 56 Bananas and starch storage and ripening 56 Sugarcane and the storage of sucrose 57 Grapes and developing fruit 57 Peanuts and lipid storage 58 Growth and the synthesis of cell components 59 Sink regulation of photosynthesis 59 Roots and the uptake of water 61 Types of root 61 Functions of roots 63 Structure of roots 64 Shoot and root growth 66 Interaction with the soil 66 Uptake of water 67 Osmosis 67 Loading and movement in the xylem 67 Structure of the xylem 67 Cohesion-tension theory of water movement in the xylem 68 Transpiration rates 72 Cavitation 72 Stomata 72 Stomatal function 74 Mineral nutrition of plants 75 Soil structure and mineral ions 75 General ion uptake 76 Phosphorus uptake and assimilation 78 Nitrogen uptake and assimilation 80 Amino acid synthesis 82 Symbiotic nitrogen fixation 82 Iron uptake and assimilation 83 Sulphur uptake and assimilation 85 Function and effects of deficiencies of mineral ions on plants 86 Major elements 86 Other important major elements 86 Minor elements 87 Mycorrhizal associations and saprophytic nutrition 89 Mycorrhizal associations 89 Vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizal associations 90 Orchidaceous mycorrhizal associations 92 Ectomycorrhiza 96 Ericaceous mycorrhiza 96 Ericoid mycorrhiza 96 Arbutoid mycorrhiza 97 Monotropoid mycorrhiza 98 Ectendomycorrhiza 99 Development of the mycorrhizal association 99 The role of the mycorrhizal association 99 Saprophytic nutrition 101 Parasitic plants 103 Establishing a parasitic relationship 103 Facultative parasitic plants 106 Obligate parasitic plants - hemiparasites 108 Obligate parasitic plants - holoparasites 111 Parasitic species other than the dicotyledons 112 Carnivorous plants 115 Carnivory: the search for a definition 115 Why have some plants turned to carnivory? 115 Trapping mechanisms 116 The pitfall trap - North American pitcher plant 116 Active spring trap - bladderworts 120 Sticky flypaper - sundews 124 Asexual and sexual reproduction 131 Asexual reproduction 131 Roots 131 Stems 132 Leaves 132 Apomixis 132 Sexual reproduction 133 Wind-based pollination 134 Insect-based pollination 136 Pollination 139 Mechanisms for improving cross-fertilization 141 Self-incompatibility mechanisms 142 Gametophytic incompatibility 145 Sporophytic incompatibility 146 Seed development 146 Plant growth 149 Types of growth 149 Cell division and the cell cycle 150 Polyploidy in plants 151 Seed formation and germination 151 The dividing meristem 151 Shoot apical meristem 152 Leaf primordia 153 Root apical meristem 154 The origin of root hairs 155 The origin of lateral roots 155 Flower development 155 Vascular cambium and secondary growth 157 Intercalary meristem 157 Cell death 157 Plant growth regulators and cell growth 159 Plant movement 161 Tropism and nastic movements 161 Tropic movements 161 Auxins and plant movement 161 Phototropism 163 Heliotropism 165 Gravitropism 166 Sensing gravity 167 Hydrotropism 167 Thigmotropism 167 Chemotropism 170 Nastic movements 171 Nyctinasty (sleep movements) 171 Seismonasty 171 Thermonasty 172 Epinasty 172 Circumnutation 174 Plants and stress 175 Adaptations to drought stress 175 Crassulacean acid metabolism 176 C4 photosynthesis 180 Resurrection plants 182 Adaptations to salt stress 184 Adaptations to flooding stress and anoxia 186 Adaptations to cold stress 187 Adaptations to heat stress 190 Plant senses and perceiving the world 193 Sensing light (sight) 193 Protochlorophyllide 193 Phytochromes 194 Seed germination 194 Shade-avoidance response 194 How do phytochromes work? 196 Phytochromes and ion movement 198 Phytochromes and regulation of gene expression 198 Cryptochrome 198 Sensing time 198 Circadian clock 198 Photoperiodism 199 Sensing touch (feeling) 201 Sensing wind and vibrations 201 Sensing chemicals (taste) 202 Communicating (smell) 204 Ethylene 204 Ripening fruits 205 Pathogenic defence and stress responses 206 Abscission 206 Detection of ethylene 206 Jasmonic acid 207 Nitric oxide 207 Sensing sounds (hearing) 207 Seed dispersal, dormancy and germination 211 Seed dispersal 211 Gravity-mediated dispersal 211 Wind-mediated dispersal 211 Water-mediated dispersal 213 Animal-mediated dispersal 213 Importance of post-dispersal mechanisms 214 Dormancy and germination 215 Recalcitrant seeds 215 Dormant seeds 216 Factors governing dormancy and germination 217 Presence of germination inhibitors 217 Presence of inhibitory tissues 218 Presence of germination promoters 218 Light 218 Temperature 219 Oxygen 219 Soil conditions 220 Gibberellic acid 220 Cytokinins 221 Ethylene 221 Smoke signals 221 Pyrogenic flowering 222 Serotiny 222 The role of heat in fires 222 Chemicals in smoke that trigger germination 223 Interactions with the animal kingdom 225 Animal-mediated pollination 225 Mimicry in plants 227 Batesian mimicry 227 Mimicry of toxic or poisonous species 227 Rewardless flowering 227 Lithops 230 Grass species as crop weeds 231 Mullerian mimicry 231 Aggressive mimicry 231 Egg mimics 231 The bee orchids 232 Pollination in the Araceae 234 Seed dispersal and food reserves: the role of humans 235 Plant defences 239 Physical defence structures 239 The cuticle 241 The cell wall 242 The cell wall as a passive barrier 242 The cell wall as an active barrier 242 Poisons by injection or touch 243 Chemical defences 243 Terpenes 244 Pyrethrins 244 Phenolic-based defence chemicals 245 Coumarins 245 Isoflavenoids 246 Tannins 247 Nitrogen-containing organic compounds 248 Non-protein amino acids 249 Proteinase and amylase inhibitors 249 Cyanogenic glycosides 249 Glycosinolates 250 Lectins 251 Alkaloids 251 Defence reactions and signal pathways 251 Jasmonic acid 252 Salicylic acid 252 Systemin 252 Phytoalexins 252 Allelopathy 252 Recognizing self 253 Mimicry and the enrolment of other organisms for.