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by many as ridiculous. It will, therefore, excite no surprise, if the older English poets are pre-eminently distinguished for their practical knowledge of the theatre and stage: even Marlowe's pieces, notwithstanding the preponderance of the lyric element, still possess much of real action. How skilful Shakspeare was in this respect, how far he surpassed his own teachers herein, every one knows who has had the good fortune to see one of his pieces represented with intelligence and propriety; whereas, in this our paper age, our best poets too often write for the reading rather than the play-going public. Shakspeare's dramas are, without exception, as rich in intrinsic poetic energy as in extrinsic scenic action. In this respect Shakspeare was unquestionably greatly indebted to his predecessors, and to the artistic progress of his age.

If, on the other hand, it is asked, what he could have learnt from them as regards the ideal contents and artistic beauty of form, in this sense of the word we answer-little; and yet, again-much. Little, inasmuch as, being a real poetical genius, he was truly original: much, because even genius, so far as it is human, cannot exist without certain conditions, but requires a fertile soil in which to root itself, and air, warmth, rain, and sunshine, for its growth and nourishment. It is not more false to maintain an absolute moral liberty, than to assert an abstract poetic freedom and creative power of man. To assert the former, would be to dissolve the moral liberty into mere subjective caprice, while the latter would reduce the artistic activity into an empty, untrue, and monstrous play of fancy. The old prejudice, which would look upon Shakspeare as a solitary point of light and splendour in a wide waste of darkness, has, I hope, been removed in some degree by the preceding sketch, however hastily executed. The better acquainted we become with the immediate forerunners of Shakspeare, the more convinced we shall feel that he was but a single member in the organical development of a great whole-that he did but complete what had been already begun by others; that he was, in short, but the master-spirit amid a band of worthy associates.

In truth, even on this account Shakspeare is not merely a point, but even the culminating and central point in that sphere and

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SKETCH OF THE ENGLISH DRAMA, BEFORE SHAKSPEARE. circle of artistic development into which he entered. The circumference determines, it is true, the centre, but is yet itself in a greater degree dependent on the centre. How powerfully, accordingly, Shakspeare influenced the artistic development of his agehow he reflected on his predecessors and contemporaries much more light than was thrown from them upon himself,-will be shown in the following sections.

II.

THE LIFE AND TIMES OF SHAKSPEARE.

THE age which could give birth to such a genius as Shakspeare, must even have possessed the virtues and powers requisite for the production and maturity of so rare a fruit. For every man, and every one especially who figures on the stage of the world, is in the main the creation of the spirit of universal history, and his birth may be looked upon as necessary, in the same way that every great invention is not simply the arbitrary or accidental achievement of the inventor, but the inevitable result of a want of the age, which required to be satisfied. Thus the Magnet, Gunpowder, and the art of Printing, were discovered as soon as the progress of the human mind required them. The twelve decades from 1480 to 1600, form one of the greatest and richest æras in the history of humanity. The pre-eminently important invention of printing (1440), had preceded them, as destined to afford the external means and lever for the grand revolution of the wheel of time. As Columbus discovered a new terrestrial world, so Luther's reformation laid open a new mental one. The arts and science of antiquity, also, now awoke out of their long lethargy, and arose in fresh strength and vigour of life. It was now, likewise, that modern and peculiarly Christian art celebrated its grandest triumphs; this, too, was the age of those great and still unequalled masters in painting-Leonardi da Vinci, Michael Angelo, Raphael, Titian, Correggio, and Durer, and of those immortal and unrivalled composers of sacred music-a Palestrina, a Giovanni Gabrieli, an Orlando Tasso, and others, and lastly it was the cradle of the most famous of modern poets, Tasso, Cervantes, Lope de Vega, Calderon, and, above all, of Shakspeare. We may venture to assert, that the birth and productions of all these great spirits were necessary; first, because the creative energy of the age must

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reveal itself in art also, and because the great ideas of the past and present required a worthy form for their manifestation; and secondly, because it was indispensable that a dam should be raised against the influence of the reviving arts and literature of antiquity, in order that the inundating flood of an undue and overrating imitation should not swamp the infancy of Christian art, or bear it down to its own low and inferior level. In the masterly creations of a Shakspeare, and a Calderon, and others, which sprung up originally out of the soil of a true Christian culture, the spirit of romantic or Christian art, even though, as subsequently has really happened, it should momentarily be overborne by the imitation of classical antiquity, would ever and anon revive, and after a brief subjugation to the ancient models, spring up again in fresh vigour and beauty.

Among all the states of Europe in the sixteenth century, England stood pre-eminent in greatness and importance. While the political influence of other nations had at the close of this period more or less declined, the vigorous and successful policy of Elizabeth had infused new life and energy into the English people. The continual wars with France, and the long civil dissensions of the Roses, had broken the feudal powers of the Barons, and established the authority of the sovereign, and thereby given a new shape to the political relation of government and people. The accession of Henry VIII. to the cause of the Reformation occasioned a mighty movement in religious and ecclesiastical life. The participation in this movement at first degenerated, no doubt, but too often, into partisanship and vindictive persecution; nevertheless, the sound and vigorous seed, once sown, however its growth might for a time be retarded, could never be destroyed, and it eventually produced the fairest flowers and fruits. Thus the persecutions of Mary did but stimulate the Reformers to greater exertions, and strengthened, rather than weakened, their cause; while, under the fostering reign of Elizabeth, it again raised its head, and put down all opposition. The English Episcopal Church furnished from the first a happy mean between the extremes of Romanism and Puritanism. While the former wished to abide by whatever was old, and the Puritans longed for novelty in all things, and with a blind fanaticism desiring on the one hand to separate

the Church and State, and on the other to destroy all liberty in customs, science, and art,—the Episcopal Church adopted all necessary changes, but at the same time retained the ancient wherever it was practicable.

The mingled rigour and mildness of Elizabeth and Burleigh*employed almost invariably with the greatest judgment and propriety-held the extreme parties in control without impeding the new course of things. The successful wars of this reign in France and the Netherlands, in defence of the reformed faith, the conquests in the West Indies, new discoveries in remote quarters of the globe, the firmer establishment of the English dominion in Ireland, the acquisition of a lasting political influence in Scotland, and especially the great victory over Spain, were events which contributed to stimulate the energies of the people, to direct its views to greater enterprises, and to awaken and confirm a consciousness of its political importance. Above all, the defeat of Philip's invincible Armada tended to elevate the national sense of self-respect and patriotism to the height of poetical enthusiasm. By the skill and bravery of the English, the Spanish fleet was in seven days reduced to such straits that it was glad to shelter itself in the harbour of Calais. But even here the fireships of the English, want of provisions, anxiety and insubordination, left the Spanish no rest, and reduced them to such a pitch of despair, that Medina Sidonia determined on retreat. Lastly, the hand of God gave the finishing stroke: on their homeward voyage fearful tempests scattered them on the Irish coast, and destroyed the greater number of their ships. "Throughout the kingdom a general thanksgiving was offered up, and on the 20th November, 1588, Elizabeth, amidst incredible rejoicings, set out on her triumphant progress to London. The portraits of the British admirals were carried before her, and the trophies of Victory were hung up at St. Paul's, and the Queen's address, and the distribution of the rewards to the soldiers and sailors, were followed by a solemn servicet in the church." This event, as Tieck justly ob

* Raumer's Gesch. Europa's seit dem Ende. d. 15. Jahrb. ii. 530. Lingard's Hist. of England, viii. 300.

† Raumer, ibid. p. 588.

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