He was president of the New York academy of fine arts, of which he was a chief founder, and also of the society for the promotion of agriculture. He died March 26, 1813, with the reputation of an able statesman, a learned lawyer and a most useful citizen.

LIVINGSTON, Brockholst, judge of the supreme court of the U. States, was the son of William Livingston, governor of New Jersey, and was born in the city of New York, November 25, 1757. He entered Princeton college, but, in 1776, left it for the field, and became one of the family of general Schuyler, commander of the northern army. He was afterwards attached to the suite of general Arnold, with the rank of major, and shared in the honor of the conquest of Burgoyne. In 1779, he accompanied Mr. Jay to the court of Spain, as his private secretary, and remained abroad about three years. On his return, he devoted himself to law, and was admitted to practise in April, 1783. His talents were happily adapted to the profession, and soon raised him into notice, and, ultimately, to eminence. He was called to the bench of the supreme court of the state of New York, January 8, 1802, and, in November, 1806, was transferred to that of the supreme court of the U. States, the duties of which station he discharged, with distinguished faithfulness and ability, until his death, which took place during the sittings of the court at Washington, March 18, 1823, in the 66th year of his age. He possessed a mind of uncommon acuteness and energy, and enjoyed the reputation of an accomplished scholar, and an able pleader and jurist, an upright judge, and a liberal patron of learning.

LIVIUS, Andronicus, the father of Roman poetry, by birth a Greek of Tarentum, first went to Rome at the commencement of the sixth century from the foundation of the city, as instructer to the children of Livius Salinator. He introduced upon the Roman stage, dramas after the Grecian model, and, besides several epic poems, wrote a translation of the Odyssey, in the old Saturnine verse. We have only a few fragments of his writings, which may be found in the Comici Latini, and the Corpus Poetarum. (See Fabricius, Bib. Lat. iv, 1.; Tit. Livii, Hist. vii, 2.) LIVIUS, Titus, born at Padua, in the year of Rome 695 (59 B. C.), came from the place of his birth to Rome, where he attracted the notice of Augustus, after whose death he returned to his native town, where he died A. D. 16. His his

tory of Rome, to which he devoted 20 years, rendered him so celebrated, that a Spaniard is said to have gone from Cadiz to Rome merely for the purpose of seeing him. Of the circumstances of his life we know little. He was called, by Augustus, the Pompeian, because he defended the character of Pompey, in his history; this, however, did not prevent his enjoying the patronage of the emperor till the time of his death. According to Suidas, Livy did not receive, during his lifetime, the applause which his history deserved, and it was not till after his death that full justice was rendered him. In the fifteenth century, his body was supposed to have been discovered at Padua, and a splendid monument was raised to his memory. His Roman history begins at the landing of Eneas in Italy, and comes down to the year of the city 744. His style is clear and intelligible, labored without affectation, diffusive without tediousness, and argumentative without pedantry. His descriptions are singularly lively and picturesque, and there are few specimens of oratory superior to that of many of the speeches with which his narratives are interspersed. Yet he was accused (see Quintilian, viii, 1) of provincialism ("patavinitas"). His whole work consisted of 140 or 142 books, of which we have remaining only the first 10, and those from the 21st to the 45th, or the first, third and fourth decades, and half of the fifth. In the first 10 books, the history extends to the year 460; the portion between the 21st and 45th books contains the account of the second Punic war (A. U. C. 536), and the history of the city to the year 586. In the year 1772, Bruns, while engaged in collecting various readings, discovered, in a codex rescriptus, in the Vatican, a fragment of the 91st book; but it is not of much importance. It was printed at Rome, and reprinted at Leipsic, in 1773. The epitome of the whole work, which has been preserved, has been ascribed, by some, to Livy, by others, to Florus. Following this outline, and deriving his facts from other credible sources of Roman history, Freinsheim composed his Supplement to Livy. The best editions of Livy are those of Gronovius (Amsterdam, 1679, 3 vols.), of Drakenborch (Leyden, 1738-46, 4 vols.), and, among the later editions, those of Ernesti, Schäfer, Ruperti and Döring. The best English translation is that of George Baker (6 vols., 1797), which has been often reprinted in England and the U. States.

LIVONIA. The Russian provinces upon the Baltic, viz. Livonia, Esthonia, Courland and Semigallia, early belonged to the Russian states, as tributaries, while they retained their own institutions, and were never protected by the Russians from hostile inroads. During the period when the Russian empire was in a state of confusion, they became independent, but were again reduced to subjection by Peter the Great. Livonia was little known to the rest of Europe till 1158, when some merchants of Bremen, on their way to Wisby, in Gothland, in search of new sources of commerce, were thrown upon the coasts of Livonia. The country was afterwards frequently visited by the people of Bremen, who soon formed settlements there. An Augustine friar, Meinhard, with other Germans, emigrated thither about 28 years after. He converted the inhabitants to Christianity, and was their first bishop. The third bishop after him, by name Albert, who advanced as far as the Dwina, first firmly established the foundations of the spiritual authority. He built the city of Riga, in the year 1200, and made it the see of the bishopric. At the close of this century, the Danish king, Canute VI, made himself master of these provinces, which were, however, given up by his successor, Wladimir III, for a sum of money, to the Teutonic knights, with whom the order of Brethren of the Sword, founded by Albert, in 1201, had been united, so that the dominion of the Teutonic order comprehended all the four provinces above mentioned. They were, however, too weak to hold them against the Russian czar, John II Wasiliwitch, who was bent upon reuniting them with the Russian empire, and the state was dissolved. Esthonia then placed itself under the protection of Sweden; Livonia was united to Poland; and Courland, with Semigallia, became a duchy, under Polish protection, which the last grand master of the Teutonic order held as a Polish fief. From this time, Livonia became a source of discord between Russia, Sweden and Poland, for near a century, from 1561 to 1660. At the peace of Oliva, in 1660, this province was ceded to Sweden by Poland, and it was again united to the province of Esthonia. (q. v.) By the peace of

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Nystadt, in 1721, both provinces were again united to the Russian empire. Livonia is bounded east by Ingria, south by Lithuania and Samogitia, west by the Baltic, and north by the gulf of Finland. It is productive in grass and grain, and consists of two provinces, Esthonia and Livonia, of which the first lies upon the gulf of Finland, the last upon the borders of Courland and Poland. The Livonians, like the Lithuanians, are a branch of the Finns, and are, for the most part, in a state of servitude; but the grievous oppression, under which they were held by their tyrants, the nobility, has been much lightened by an imperial decree of 1804. Besides the original inhabitants, there are, in the country, many Russians, Germans and Swedes. The greater part are Lutherans; but Calvinists, Catholics, and the Greek church, enjoy liberty of worship. In 1783, the country was newly organized, and Livonia became the government of Riga, and Esthonia that of Revel. The name of Livonia was, however, restored by the emperor Paul, in 1797. It is, at present, divided into five circles. The government of Riga contains 20,000 square miles, and 980,000 inhabitants.-See the Essai sur l'Histoire de la Livonie, by count de Bray (Dorpat, 1817, 3 vols.), and Granville's Journey to St. Petersburg (1828).

LIVRE; an ancient French coin. The word is derived from the Latin libra (q. v.), a pound. It appears as early as 810 B. C. At first, the livre was divided into 20 solidos; afterwards into 10 sous ; in Italy, into 20 soldi; in Spain, into 20 sueldos, as the old German pound into 20 schillinge, and the English into 20 shillings. The livre was, at first, of high value. The revolution changed the name into franc. (See Franc, and Coins.)

LIVY. (See Livius.)

LIZARD. All reptiles having a naked body, four feet and a tail, are vulgarly known under the name of lizards. Linnæus himself only constituted two genera of this numerous class of animalsdraco and lacerta; but more modern naturalists have greatly increased the number of genera. The following is the arrangement followed by Cuvier in the last edition of his Règne animal :—

Besides these, the salamanders, which belong to the fourth order, or Batraciens, are also generally termed lizards. (See Alligator, Basilisk, Chameleon, Crocodile, Dragon, Gecko, Iguana, Monitor, &c.)

LIZARD, CAPE; the most southern promontory of England, in the county of Cornwall.

LLAMA (auchenia, Illig.). This valuable animal, which supplies the place of the camel to the inhabitants of Southern America, is much more graceful and delicate than the Eastern "ship of the desert." Their slender and well formed legs bear a much more equal proportion to the size and form of their body. Their necks are more habitually maintained in an upright position, and are terminated by a much smaller head. Their ears are long, pointed, and very movable; their eyes large, prominent and brilliant, and the whole expression of their physiognomy conveys a degree of intelligence and vivacity that is wanting in the camel. There has been much difference of opinion among naturalists as regards the number of species. The first travellers in America spoke of the llama, the guanaco, the alpaca, and the vicugna, without giving such details as were requisite to identify them. Most of the early naturalists, including Linnæus, reduced them to two species, the llama or guanaco, used as a beast of burden, and the alpaca, paco or vicugna, prized for its wool and flesh. Buffon was at first of the same opinion, but, subsequently, admitted the vicugna as a third species. Molina also separated the guanaco, and added a fifth, the hueque or Chilian sheep, both of which species were adopted by most subsequent compilers. Mr. F. Cuvier, howeyer, limits the number to three, rejecting the two last mentioned; whilst baron Cuvier only admits the llama and the vicugna, considering the alpaca as a variety of the first.

FAMILY IV.
GECKOTIENS.
Gecko, Daud.
Sub-genera, 8.
FAMILY V.
CHAMÆLIONIENS.
Chamæleo.

FAMILY VI.
SCINCOÍDIENS.

Scincus, Daud.
Seps, Daud.
Bipes, Lacep.
Chalcides, Daud.
Chirotes, Cuv.

The llamas inhabit the Cordilleras of the Andes, but are most common in Peru and Chile; they are rare in Colombia and Paraguay. They congregate in large herds, which sometimes consist of upwards of a hundred individuals, and feed on a grass peculiar to the mountains, termed ycho. As long as they can procure green herbage, they are never known to drink. At. the period of the arrival of the Europeans in Peru, these animals were the only ruminants known to the inhabitants, by whom they were used as beasts of burden, and killed in vast numbers for their flesh and skins. Gregory de Bolivar asserts that, in his time, 4,000,000 were annually killed for food, and 300,000 used in the service of the mines of Potosi. From the form of their feet, they are peculiarly fitted for mountainous countries, being, it is said, even safer than mules. They are also maintained at a trifling expense, wanting, as is observed by father Feuillée, "neither bit nor saddle; there is no need of oats to feed them; it is only necessary to unload them in the evening, at the place where they are to rest for the night; they go abroad into the country to seek their own food, and, in the morning, return, to have their baggage replaced, and continue their journey." They cannot carry more than from 100 to 150 pounds, at the rate of 12 or 15 miles a day. Like the camel, they lie down to be loaded, and when they are wearied, no blows will compel them to proceed. In fact, one of their great faults is the capriciousness of their disposition. When provoked, they have no other mode of avenging themselves than by spitting, which faculty they possess in an extraordinary degree, being capable of ejecting their saliva to a distance of several yards. This is of a corroding quality, causing some degree of irritation and itching, if it

falls on the naked skin. Besides their services as beasts of burden, the llamas afford various articles of no small utility to human life. The flesh is considered very wholesome and savory, especially from the young animal. Their wool, though of a strong, disagreeable scent, is in great request, especially among the native Indians, who employ it in the manufacture of stuffs, ropes, bags and hats. Their skins are of a very close texture, and were formerly employed by the Peruvians for soles of shoes, and are much prized by the Spaniards for harness. The female llama goes five or six months with young, and produces one at a birth. The growth of the young is very rapid; being capable of producing at three years of age, and beginning to decay at about twelve. The Ilama is four feet and a half high, and not more than six in length. He has a bunch on his breast, which constantly exudes a yellowish oily matter. His hair is long and soft; his colors, various shades of white, brown, &c. The tail is rather short, curved downwards. The hoofs are divided; or, rather, the toes are elongated forwards, and terminated by small horny appendages, surrounding the last phalanx only, rounded above, and on either side somewhat curved. There are several specimens of the llama in the different menageries in Europe, where they appear to thrive very well.

LLANEROS (from llano, plain); the inhabitants of the plains, or Llanos (q. v.). In this article, we speak more particularly of those in Venezuela. The immense plains of Venezuela, which afford excellent pasture for all kinds of flocks and herds, are generally inhabited by converted Indians or descendants of Indians and whites, who are distinguished for activity, ferocity, ignorance and semi-barbarous habits, and are called Llaneros. From childhood they are accustomed to catch and mount wild horses, which roam by hundreds over the savannas. When at war, they are generally armed with a long lance, and often have neither swords nor pistols. Uniform is unknown among them; a few rags cover the upper part of their body; their pantaloons are broad and full, somewhat in the Mameluke style. They have blankets (mantas), as is the case with most Indians in habits of intercourse with whites; many of them have hammocks. They are brave in defending their plains. Their manner of fighting is much like that of the Cossacks; they never attack in regular files, but disperse themselves in every direction, rushing onward, flying,

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repeatedly attacking and constantly harassing the enemy. Paez, who was born and bred among them, and is in manners, language and ferocity, a complete Llanero, commanded them during the war of Colombian independence, and is adored by them. They choose their own officers, and dismiss them at pleasure. They suffer no foreigners among them. As they have played a conspicuous part in the revolutions of Colombia, we subjoin the description of them by colonel Hippisley, which is corroborated by general Ducoudray Holstein,in his Memoirs of Simon Bolivar. "Sedeno's cavalry (Llaneros)," says colonel Hippisley, "were composed of all sorts and sizes, some with saddles, very many of them without; some with bits, leather head-stalls and reins; others with rope lines, with a bite of the rope placed over the tongue of the horse as a bit; some with old pistols hung over the saddle bow, either incased in tiger-skin, or oxhide holster-pipes, or hanging by a thong of hide, one on each side. As for the troopers themselves, they were from 13 to 46 years of age, of black, brown, sallow complexions, according to the castes of their parents.

The adults wore coarse, large mustachios, and short hair, either woolly or black, according to their climate or descent. They had a ferocious, savage look. They were mounted on miserable, half-starved, jaded beasts, horses or mules; some without trowsers, small clothes, or any covering, except a bandage of blue cloth or cotton round their loins, the end of which, passing between their legs, was fastened to the girth, round the waist; others with trowsers, but without stockings, boots or shoes, and a spur generally gracing the heel of one side; and some wearing a kind of sandal made of hide, with the hair side outward. In their left hand they hold their reins, and in their right a pole, from eight to ten feet in length, with an iron head, very sharp at the point and sides, and rather flat; in shape like our sergeants' halbert. A blanket of about a yard square, with a hole, or rather a slit, cut in the centre, through which the wearer thrusts his head, falls on each side of his shoulders, thus covering his body, and leaving his bare arms at perfect liberty to manage his horse, or mule, and lance. Sometimes an old musket, the barrel of which has been shortened 12 inches, forms his carbine, and a large sabre or hanger, or cut and thrust, or even a small sword, hangs by a leather thong to his side. A flat hat, a tiger skin or high cap, covers his head, with a white feather

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or a white rag stuck into it." This picture will remind the reader of some of the cavalry which Russia marched from her Asiatic dominions against France in the final struggle with Napoleon.

LLANOS; the name given in the northern part of South America, particularly in Colombia, to vast plains, almost entirely level, and interrupted only by detached elevations, called, in Spanish, mesas. The superficial area of the llanos is estimated at 296,800 square miles; they extend from the coast of Caracas to Guiana, and from Merida to the mouth of the Orinoco and the Amazons. A large portion of them is sandy and without much vegetation, except on the banks of the rivers and during inundations: some fan-palms are found. When the inundations occur, the beasts take refuge upon the mesas. The llanos have been supposed by some to have formerly been the bottom of the sea. They are distinguished into the (a.) Llano of Colombia, extending from the mountains of Caracas to the mouth of the Orinoco, and to the mountains of St. Fé, and containing several mesas (de Amana, de Guanipa, de Paja, 50-65 feet in height), which, in the rainy season, are covered with rich verdure, and inhabited by herds and flocks of all descriptions.-(b.) Llano de Casanare; a continuation of the former, between the Orinoco, Meta and Sinaruca.(c.) Llano de S. Juan; very fertile, woody, often so thickly overgrown, that it can only be penetrated by means of the numerous rivers; lies on the southern bank of the Meta, reaching to the Amazons, and was discovered in 1541, by Gonzalo Ximenes Quesada.-(d.) Llano of the Amazons, or the Maranhon; on both sides of the river, extending from the Andes to the mouth of the Maranhon, over 2100 miles; it is also wooded, and rich in grass, entirely without stones, and inhabited by many species of animals. The inhabitants of these plains are called Llaneros (q. v.). Farther to the south, such plains are called pampas (q. v.).

LLORENTE, don Juan Antonio, born in 1756, near Calahorra, in Arragon, author of the first history of the Spanish inquisition, drawn from its own records, received his education at Tarragona, entered the clerical order in 1770, received a benefice at Calahorra, and, in 1779, by means of a dispensation (as he was hardly 23 years old), was consecrated a priest. This, however, did not prevent him from pursuing the study of the canon law, while he devoted his leisure to the muses. At Madrid, he was attracted by the theatre,

and composed a sort of melo-drama, the Recruit of Galicia. A tragedy, entitled Eric, the King of the Goths, was not represented, as it contained allusions to existing difficulties at the court of Madrid. In 1789, he was made chief secretary to the inquisition. Here he had an opportunity to learn from the archives of the tribunal the history of its shameful and barbarous proceedings. In 1791, he was sent back to his parish, on suspicion of being attached to the principles of the French revolution, and in spite of the protection of the minister Florida Blanca, who was an enlightened statesman. Here he occupied himself actively in the support of emigrant French priests; and many of these unfortunate men were indebted to him alone for their subsistence. The manuscript of a history of the emigration of the French priesthood, founded upon the knowledge obtained from these acquaintances, and written in 1793, was lost by the fault of the censors of the press. In the mean time, don Manuel Abad la Sierra, an enlightened man, was made grand inquisitor, who, intending to reform the administration of this tribunal, employed Llorente to prepare a plan for the purpose. But, before it was completed, the removal of Abad la Sierra was obtained by his enemies. Some time after, the design was taken up again at Madrid, and Llorente repaired thither to submit the plan which he had prepared in conjunction with the bishop of Calahorra. Jovellanos (q. v.), minister of justice, supported them. It was proposed to make the proceedings of the tribunal of the inquisition public. All depended upon their obtaining the assistance of the prince of peace, the favorite of the queen. But Jovellanos was suddenly removed from office, and the inquisition remained as it was.* (See Inquisition.) Llorente soon felt its arm himself. His correspondence was seized; the most innocent expressions were misinterpreted ; he was sentenced to a month's confinement in a monastery, and to pay a fine of 50 ducats, and was removed from the ap

*A French ultra,Clausel de Coussergues, having publicly asserted that the inquisition had not burnt any person since 1680, Llorente, in his Lettre à M. Clausel, &c., sur l'Inquisition d' Es1700 to 1808 alone, no less than 1578 persons pagne (Paris, 1817), proved, that from the year had perished at the stake by its means! how long is it since this holy tribunal suffered the body of general Miranda, who had died in their dungeons, to be devoured by dogs, and burnt a German officer in effigy, because he had, during the war under Napoleon, translated a book, which, in Spain, was considered heretical?

And