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MILITARY COLONIES OF RUSSIA.

directed its execution. When the emperor Alexander, at the termination of the wars with Napoleon, desired plans for diminishing the great expense of a standing army, Araktschejeff advised him to quarter the soldiers among the crown peasants, to build military villages on a given plan, to allow to each house a certain number of acres of land, and to devise a code of laws for the government of this institution. The soldier was thus to become a peasant of the crown, and the crown peasant a soldier, and both were to be made to contribute to their own support by the cultivation of the soil, and the whole male population of the colonies was to be drilled in the military exercises, and be kept as a reserve for field-duty. On account of the vast extent of the empire, the recruits hitherto levied had often been totally separated from their homes; they joined their regiments, and, after 25 years of service on the frontiers of Turkey, Persia, Poland, Norway and China, forgot that they had families and a country. It was therefore considered desirable that the whole military force of the Russians along the boundaries of Poland, Turkey, and the vicinity of Caucasus, should be collected into military colonies, by which not only the population and cultivation of the country should be promoted, and the families of the soldiers in actual service be provided for, but also the soldiers themselves in times of peace, and in the midst of their wives and children, and around their own firesides, should acquire an attachment to their country. Such colonies were first established in the government of Novogorod; the soldiers were placed in certain villages, which were the property of the crown; the peasants were gradually brought under military government, obliged to wear their hair short, and to shave their beards, and were also drilled in military exercises, so that, in case of the death, absence on service, or sickness of the quartered soldier, the peasant could immediately take his place. Some disorders, the consequence of this project, were soon suppressed, and the whole system graduelly developed. According to this system, the name, age, property and family of each inhabitant of the selected villages are specified; the older peasants are declared the chief colonists, and houses built for them, in regular rows constituting streets. Each chief colonist is equipped in uniform, trained to military exercises, and receives a house with 15 desatines of land, on condition of maintaining one soldier (and his horse, if cavalry is colonized).

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The soldier quartered on him is called the agricultural soldier, and assists him in the tillage of the fields and in domestic labors. He also selects one of his family as an assistant, commonly the eldest son, who, after the death of his father, with the approbation of the colonel of the regiment, inherits his real estate. The second son,

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or some other relation, comes into the reserve," and also dwells in the house; the third is also made an agricultural soldier; the others are cantonists, &c. A family is divided into three classes. The boys, until they are eight years of age, are allowed to remain with their parents; they are then sent to the military schools, where they are habituated to strict discipline: at the age of 13 years, they become cantonists, and at the same time are educated as peasants and soldiers, and at 17 years, they form a part of the military colony, which is governed by a peculiar code. Each colony has its own court of justice, at which the highest officer presides, and the rest follow according to rank. No girl is permitted to marry any one but a soldier. No person is allowed to enter the military district without a special pass from the military authority. The duties connected with the posthouses are also committed to the care of the soldiers. After 20 or 25 years' service, the agricultural soldier may renounce his double duty as a soldier and a farmer, or declare himself an invalid. His place is then filled by one of the reserve. Thus had Russia, in 1824, already established a kind of military caste, and, as it were, a military zone, which extends from the Baltic to the Black sea, along the western frontier of the empire, in the governments of Novogorod, Cherson, Charkow and Ekaterinoslaw, and constitutes the proper country of her standing army. In this belt of land, all the male children are born soldiers; in their 17th year, they are placed under the standards, constantly drilled in military exercises, and remain soldiers till they are 60 years of age. As soldiers, they cease to be boors. They are divided into regiments, companies, &c., for whose support a part of the crownlands is set apart. From the produce of the lands granted them, the soldiers of the colony must support themselves and their horses, while not in active service; then they receive pay. It is calculated, that the number of these agricultural soldiers, when the system is fully carried into execution, will amount to 3,000,000, half of whom can be drafted for service. The colonies already established, in 1824, con

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MILITARY COLONIES OF RUSSIA-MILITARY DISTRICT.

tained about 400,000 male inhabitants, including 40,000 cavalry. In July of the same year, the emperor visited in person many of the colonies, and publicly expressed his satisfaction with their condition. As this system is extended, the conscription and recruiting hitherto practised must gradually fall into disuse. The empire, on its only assailable side, is thus in a continual state of defence; this living rampart also compensates for the want of fortresses, of which there are none of much importance in Russia. General count Araktschejeff was, till the death of Alexander, the commander-in-chief of all the military colonies of the empire. In January, 1824, all the military cantonists of the military orphan schools (in which reading, writing and arithmetic are taught on the Lancastrian plan, and the soldiers' catechism explained), were made subordinate to the commander-in-chief of the military colonies. Of the cantonists, a considerable number yearly enter the military service, in the place of those of the reserves, who have been drafted to supply the numbers of the agricultural soldiers. The boys then succeed to the places vacated by these cantonists, and so on. A military education is the peculiar support of this system, which subjects the peasant to a military police. For the education and support of the boys and cantonists, the revenue obtained from the release of recruits is applied. By the ukase of Dec. 29, 1823, the possessors of landed property in the thinly settled governments were released from the duty of levying recruits, by the payment of a certain sum of money; 3500 of these releases, at 2000 roubles paper money each, were issued, which produce an income to the state of 7,000,000 of roubles. The expenditures for the military colonies amounted, according to the report of the commander-in-chief, in the year 1822, to 4,962,475 roubles,and the total expenditure since their organization, to 1824, amounted in all to 15,780,115 roubles. Of the 6,000,000 of crown peasants, 4,000,000 are sufficient to furnish quarters to the whole army. Thus Russia, together with her present army of 8-900,000 men (according to the rolls, though not in actual service), would have one equally strong in her colonists, which can be recruited from the cantonists and the body of reserve, without interruption, and in the best manner. A very despotic authority will, however, be requisite to preserve a body of 2,000,000 of soldiers, who have houses and families, under military discipline and restrictions. This system, since

the death of the emperor Alexander, has been extended no farther, but, as far as it was already in existence, has been retained, and was for a time under the direction of general Diebitsch. Mr. Lyall, an Englishman, in 1822, visited the Russian military colonies, and gave an account of them in his Travels through Russia (London, 1824).

MILITARY DISTRICT, or MILITARY FRONTIER (in German, Militairgrenze); a district of the Austrian monarchy, containing 18,230 square miles, with 99,000 inhabitants; which stretches 920 miles along the Hungarian and Transylvanian frontiers, as far as they border on the Turkish territory. It has a military constitution, and the inhabitants are soldiers and peasants at the same time. They have received the hereditary use of the land, for which they are obliged to render certain services to the government, amongst which the military service is the most important. They form thus an uninterrupted cordon against the Turks, and the Austrian government has an army always ready without great expense. The soldiers actually in service belonging to this district amount, in peace, to 45,000 men. In 1815, they amounted to 62,000 men. These frontier soldiers protect their country against the Turks and the plague, without pay. When they are marched against enemies in a different quarter, they have the common pay of other soldiers. In the 30 years' war, in the Austrian war of succession, and in the seven years' war, their services were important; and still more so in the repeated contests between Austria and Turkey. At the beginning of the French revolu tionary war, no less than 100,000 of them appeared in the field. They have shown themselves undeviatingly faithful to their monarch. Their military officers exercise also the civil and judicial authority. The highest office is called the generalcommando, under whom stand the commandos of the regiments. The whole country is divided into five generalships (generalate), which, in 1815, contained three fortresses, eleven cities (or, as they are called, military communities, which have their own magistrates), 24 market towns and staff quarters, and 1995 villages. In the generalship of Carlstadt and Warasdin, the most important places are Karlobago, Zengh and Bellowar; in the generalship of Banat, Petrinia and Kostainicza; in the Sclavonic generalship, or that of Peterwardein, Old and New Gradisca, Peterwardein, Carlowitz and Sem

MILITARY DISTRICT-MILITARY SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES. 483

destination, in traversing the states of a friendly power.

lin; to which also belong the Tschaikists; in the Hungarian Banat generalship, Pancsowa, Weisskirchen and Karansebeo. MILITARY SCHOOLS and ACADEMIES ; In the Transylvanian generalship there schools in which soldiers receive instrucare no places particularly worthy of notice. tion, or in which youths are educated for Next to agriculture and the raising of the army. Among the former are the cattle, the cultivation of wine and garden soldier-schools, in which, as is the case in fruits is carried on extensively. Flax, many armies, particularly in the Prussian, hemp, tobacco, and many other important the private soldiers learn reading, writing plants, are cultivated. The country is rich and arithmetic; they are also, in the last in valuable minerals. Mining, particular- named country at least, often instructed ly in the present Banat and the Tran- in singing, so that it is common, in the sylvanian frontiers, was in a flourishing Prussian army, for a battalion to have condition even in the time of the Romans; its choir, which sings during divine serbut these mines are, at present, little vice, and on other occasions. Instruction worked. Manufactures are in a low con- has become so general in the Prussian dition. The mechanics, as well as the army, by means of regimental and battalmerchants, live chiefly in the communities, ion schools, that during the last years of so called. The inhabitants belong prin- peace, the army was considered an insticipally to four races. The most numerous tution for the instruction of the whole are the Sclavonians; after these, the Wala- country, as every Prussian is obliged to chians; then follow the Hungarians and serve for a short time in the standing arSzekler; after these, the Germans. The my. In some armies conversazioni have majority belong to the Greek church; the been introduced, in which the officers Roman Catholics, however, are almost hold discourse with the sergeants and equally numerous. There are also Greek privates, on subjects connected with the Catholics, Calvinists, Lutherans, and Uni- service. When the officers in the armies tarians. In the time of the Romans, this of the European continent were taken country belonged partly to Illyria and Pan- from the nobility only, academies were nonia Savia, partly to the kingdom of Dacia, established by government to educate and shared the changes of those countries. young noblemen. They were called in Sigismund of Hungary laid the founda- Germany Ritterakademien, and sometion of the military frontier when he times were of a high character. These founded the capitanat of Zengh. In the establishments must be distinguished from middle of the sixteenth century, the fron- the cadet-houses, so called, where, genetier seems to have been already divided rally speaking, the children of officers into two chief districts. The Croatian only are educated for the army. In many frontier was the first; the others were countries, noblemen only are admitted established much later, when, by the into these also. In several French cities, peace of Carlowitz, Austria received companies of cadets existed when Louis from Turkey several provinces entirely un- XV, in 1751, first established an école peopled. In no part of Hungary does the royale militaire for 500 young noblemen, population increase so rapidly; and yet from eight to eleven years old. The the frontier has to furnish many troops in principal features of its organization have all the wars of Austria, and many young been retained in most similar institutions. people, unable to obtain land for the sup--See Recueil d'Édits, Déclarations, Regleport of a family, emigrate into other parts of the monarchy. The Transylvanian frontier was established the latest. (See Statistik der Militairgrenze des östreich. Kaiserthums, by Hietzinger, Vienna, 1822.) MILITARY GEOGRAPHY. (See Military Sciences, and Geography.)

MILITARY ORDERS. (See Orders.) MILITARY ROADS are, 1. such roads as are destined chiefly to facilitate the movements of military bodies; for instance, some of the superb roads which Napoleon constructed in Italy, to effect an easy military connexion with France; 2. roads on which, according to treaty, foreign troops may march to a certain place of

mens et Ordonnances du Roi, concernant l'Hôtel de l'École roy. militaire (Paris, 1762). The (so called) Ritterakademien originated later. Frederic the Great established the école militaire at Berlin, for the further accomplishment of young officers. Even before the seven years' war, every French city in which a regiment of artillery was garrisoned, had its artillery school. Saxony followed in 1766, Austria and Prussia later. At present, the two last have excellent artillery schools, as well as others in the department of engineering. Since 1815, the standard of scientific education of officers has been much raised in several armies; in none,

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however, so high as in the Prussian, in which no person can be promoted without a severe examination. Besides the regimental schools in this army, mentioned above, every division has its school, to which young sergeants, &c., are admitted (if they appear, on examination, to possess the necessary elementary knowledge), in order to prepare themselves for examination for a lieutenancy. Mathematics, history, geography, statistics, the applied mathematics, modern languages, particularly French, and the military sciences (q. v.), are here the chief subjects of study. The artillery corps and engineer corps have their separate schools for young officers, to prepare themselves for examination for the rank of captain. The captain must continue his studies by himself, to stand an examination for the rank of major. Of the troops of the line, every regiment is allowed to send a few of its young officers, who must have shown great diligence, talent, and considerable acquirements, to the general military school in Berlin-an institution of a very high character. Here the highest branches of mathematics, geology and mineralogy, chemistry and natural philosophy, history, politics, the military sciences, languages, &c., are taught in a course which occupies three years. The officers also attend such lectures in the university as they choose. It is evident how much such establishments must raise the standard of learning in the whole army, and, indeed, the corps of officers contains some of the most accomplished men in Prussia. In France, the former cadet houses have been called, since the revolution, military schools. (For the military academy at West Point, see West Point.)

MILITARY SCIENCES have, by some of the latest writers, been divided into the following heads:-1. Tactics, i. e. the science of the drilling of an army, as well as of disposing and directing it in battle, requiring, of course, an acquaintance with the different kinds of arms. The artillerist devotes himself particularly to the ordnance, and the various branches of science requisite for its proper management. The lower, or elementary tactics, treats of the drilling and formation of soldiers, and accustoming them to the movements of small and large divisions, and varies in character with the different regulations of different armies. Tactics proper treats of the mode of disposing troops in the actual combat, and of the peculiar use of each species of force, cavalry, infantry, both heavy and light, and artillery. With them

is nearly connected the choice of camps, or castrametation (q. v.), though, since the introduction of the system of requisition, this branch of military science has gone almost entirely out of use. The knowledge of the employment of pontons seems also to fall within this department. 2. Strategy, the science of forming the plans of operation, and of directing armies accordingly. It has been but lately treated as an independent branch, since von Bulow wrote on the subject. Many military writers will not as yet admit such a division; but little doubt can exist that it will be universally adopted. (See, among other works, Principles of Strategy, elucidated by the Description of the Campaign of 1796, in Germany, by the archduke Charles, q. v.) 3. The branch which treats of the just understanding and proper use of the surface of the earth for military purposes. The tactics of our time can overcome a number of obstacles, arising from the character of the ground, which were formerly considered insurmountable; still, however, this department of military science, embracing, as it does, a knowledge of the usual character of the ground under given circumstances, the course of rivers, of mountains, valleys, geological formations, &c., remains indispensable for a useful officer. To this branch belongs, or, at least, with it is intimately connected, reconnoitring, surveying, drawing of topographical maps, &c. 4. Military Architecture, or Fortification, which teaches how to fortify any given point by artificial means, so that a few persons may be able to defend themselves against the attacks of many. It embraces the construction of proper fortresses (fortification permanente or royale), the attack and defence of fortified places, and the knowledge of field fortification (fortification passagère), which treats of the construction, attack and defence of redoubts in the field, raised for transitory purposes, and not so solid as in standing fortifications. 5. Military History and Biography, which embraces a knowledge of all important wars, and also of the various organizations of armies, the principles upon which war has been carried on, the different arms used, and the consequences attending their use, &c.; also the lives of the greatest generals, and the resources which they found in situations where many leaders would have despaired. The history of military literature, to a certain extent, is indispensable for a young officer, that he may be directed to the best works of the different nations.

MILITARY SCIENCES-MILITIA.

Of the auxiliary sciences, the most important is mathematics, which is indispensable for a scientific soldier; military geography, embracing a knowledge of roads, rivers, valleys, &c., the law of nations, modern languages, and gymnastics. The branches of study now enumerated are more or less essential to the well educated soldier; but they cannot make a general, any more than the study of the thorough base can make a Mozart, or the knowledge of perspective, anatomy and colors, a Raphael. Although it would be a useless waste of time to set about proving that scientific study is essential to a commander, yet the greatest general must find the most important resources in his own genius; and this must act with unfailing promptness. An artist, if unsuccessful, may renew his efforts; but in war, the fate of a battle may depend upon an instant decision, and a failure is ruin.

MILITIA (from the Latin militia); in the modern adaptation of the word, a body of armed citizens regularly trained, though not in constant service in time of peace, and thereby contradistinguished to standing armies. It includes all classes of the citizens, with certain exceptions, who are drilled at particular periods in peace, and liable, according to certain laws, to march, in cases of emergency, against the enemy, in some countries, however, not beyond the frontiers. The regular organization of the militia distinguishes it from the levée-en-masse. (q. v.) The militia exists in different countries under different names; thus, in France, the national guards are what, in the U. States, are called militia (see Guards, National); in some countries, they are denominated burgher-guards; in Austria and Prussia, Landwehr (defence of the country), while the levée-en-masse is called, in these two countries, Landsturm. In the articles Army, and Army, Standing, is given a brief sketch of the different organization of armies from the feudal militia to the standing armies of the last century, and from them again to the citizen soldiers of later times. The reader will also find there the titles of several works which afford interesting information on this subject. In the article Feudal System, the origin of the armies in the middle ages was briefly touched on. When the feudal system had rendered almost every nobleman on the European continent an independent monarch in miniature, he kept his own warriors in his castle or territory, and the difficulty of assembling a large general army, even for a good purpose, was im

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mense. In the cities (q. v.) where a more republican spirit prevailed, all the citizens were obliged, at least, to take part in the defence of their city, a duty which they were not seldom called upon to perform. The introduction of standing armies, chiefly in consequence of the endeavor of monarchs to render their governments more and more independent upon the nation at large, caused the citizens to take less and less share in the military service, and, in many cases, excluded them from it entirely; yet, while, in some countries, the services of the citizen soldiers were becoming every day of less importance, so that burgher-militia even became a termi of contempt in many places, other governments began to foster the national militia. The Swedish army was, at an early period, a kind of general militia. The army consisted of twenty-one regiments, of which each owner of landed property was bound to maintain one man. They assembled every year for three weeks, and, during this time as well as in war, received full pay (as is now the case in Prussia). The Danish army was formed on a somewhat similar plan, about a third of each regiment consisting of enlisted foreigners, while two thirds were Danish subjects, who, like those in Sweden, were supported by the owners of landed property, but, in return, were obliged to assist the latter in the cultivation of their estates. In Germany, similar plans were adopted. The privates and non-commissioned officers of the militia followed their agricultural or mechanical pursuits, and were generally under the command of officers out of active service. They were only obliged to serve within the country. Frederic the Great used them to garrison the fortresses: the same was the case with the Austrian militia during the war of succession. The bad organization and unmilitary spirit of these troops rendered them the butt of the troops of the line. In some cases, it was even considered allowable, by the laws of war, not to give them any quarter, when they were employed out of the limits of their country, and were taken prisoners. They became extinct almost every where on the European continent. Similar, but better organized, was the English militia. The origin of this national force is generally traced back to Alfred. The feudal military tenures succeeded, and, although the personal service which this system required degenerated by degrees into pecuniary commutations, or aids, the defence of the kingdom was provided for by laws requiring

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