56

Austria came into possession of much of that part of Upper Italy which had constituted the kingdom of Italy, and, in 1815, it formed of its Italian provinces a Lombardo-Venetian kingdom. In this are comprehended the territories of the former republic of Venice (with the exception of Istria, and the canton of Civida, which are united to the new kingdom of Illyria), the Austrian portion of the duchy of Milan, Mantua, a small part of Parma, Placentia, and the papal territories, and those formerly belonging to Switzerland, viz. the Valteline, Bormio and Chiavenna. It is bounded by Switzerland, Germany, the Adriatic sea, the Papal States, Modena, Parma and Sardinia. It contains 17,600 square miles, and 4,176,000 inhabitants, among whom are 66,500 Germans, 5600 Jews, and some Greeks. It is watered by the Tagliamento, the Piave, the Brenta, the Adige, the Po, Ticino, Mincio and Adda. The principal lakes are those of Como, the Lago Maggiore, and the lakes of Iseo and Garda. Its canals are also numerous. The country is, for the most part, level, but towards the north, it is broken by spurs of the Alps, and to the west of Padua, lie the Euganean mountains, mostly of volcanic origin, and from 1700 to 1800 feet in height. This province is, in most parts, well cultivated, and resembles a garden. The climate is cool in the northern districts, near the Alps; but is, in the remaining parts, warm, mild and healthy, although not free from frosts in winter; and, on this account, it sometimes happens that the olive, orange, citrons, and other tender plants, as well as the vineyards, are injured by the cold, and the rivers frozen. Even the lagoons at Venice are sometimes frozen so hard, that you may walk a considerable distance, or even drive carriages, upon them. The animals of the country are neat cattle, tolerable horses, sheep with coarse wool, numerous birds and fish. The silk-worm is also raised. Agriculture is the chief dependence of the inhabitants. The soil is fertile, and very productive in maize, and other species of grain, leguminous plants, garden fruits, flax, &c. Lands that are swampy are devoted to the cultivation of rice, of which part is consumed in the country, and part exported to Germany. The production of oil and wine is also much attended to. Besides the fruits above-named, chestnuts, almonds, figs, and many other fruits, grow here. A considerable trade is carried on in figs, oranges and citrons. The mineral kingdom produces iron, copper,

marble, salt. There are some mineral waters. Manufactures no longer sustain the rank which they once held: the principal are those of glass, silk and iron. The production and manufacture of silk are attended to throughout the country. All kinds of silk stuffs, ribbons, hose and sewing-silk are exported. The manufacture of glass at Venice and Murano was once important, and their mirrors much celebrated; and, even now, artificial pearls, and glass work of all kinds, are executed in great perfection. The manufactories of steel and iron are chiefly to be found at Brescia, where many fire-arms, sabres, knives, &c., are made. The manufacture of woollens has much declined. The gold and silver works at Venice and Milan are celebrated; porcelain, pottery, carpets, paper, many articles of luxury, as masks, artificial flowers, pomatum, confectionary, perfumes, sausages, candied fruits, vermicelli, and Parmesan cheese, are also produced. Cremona is noted for her violins, flutes, lutes, &c. The exports exceed the imports in value. This country is dependent upon the Austrian government, but, in April, 1815, the emperor gave it a constitution. (See article Constitution, vol. iii, p. 468.) It is governed by a viceroy, who resides at Milan, and is divided into the governments of Lombardy and Venice. The administration of each is intrusted to a governor and a council, dependent upon the highest authorities at Vienna. The government of Lombardy contains nearly 2,200,000 inhabitants, on 8270 square miles of territory, and its capital is Milan. Venice is the capital of the government of the same name, which contains 2,000,000 inhabitants, upon 9330 square miles. The subdivisions are called delegations. With the authorities are connected permanent colleges, composed of individuals from various classes.

LOMÉNIE DE BRIENNE, Stephen Charles, cardinal, archbishop and minister of state in France, born at Paris, in 1727, embraced the clerical profession, in which his active spirit, and the powerful influence of his connexions, enabled him to rise rapidly, although his connexion with the free-thinkers of the age (D'Alembert, Morellet, &c.) could not have been very agreeable to the court and the clergy. In 1754, he published, with Turgot, Le Conciliateur, ou Lettres d'un Ecclésiastique à un Magistrat, which was intended to quiet the difficulties then existing between the parliament and clergy, and which was afterwards several times republished by

Condorcet, Dupont de Nemours, and others. In 1758, he was at Rome, in the capacity of conclavist of cardinal de Luynes, in the conclave which raised Clement XIII to the papal throne. In 1760, he was appointed bishop of Condom, and, three years after, received the archbishoprie of Toulouse, in which situation he obtained the praise of those who were opposed to the old hierarchical and monkish establishments. While he attempted to reduce the power and wealth of the monasteries, he was liberal in assisting all who were in need; he caused the Garonne to be united with the canal of Caraman, by a lateral canal, which still bears his name; he established institutions for education, also hospitals, and several scholarships at the military school at Toulouse. In 1770, he was made a member of the academy, and, when Beaumont, the archbishop of Paris, died, he would have obtained that elevated situation, but for his attempts at a general reform of the monasteries, which the bigots at court could not forgive. At the first breaking out of the discontents in France, Brienne was among the most active. He was the first to raise his voice against the administration of Calonne; and, after the dismission of that minister, the partisans of Brienne induced Louis XVI to place him, as his successor, at the head of the finances. His brother, the count de Brienne, was, at the same time (1787), appointed minister of war. The new financier certainly fell short of the most moderate expectations; and, if some excuse is found for him in the almost inextricable confusion which reigned in the affairs of France at this period, still his warmest defenders must allow that, for once, at least, they were deceived in him. The confusion increased daily, and the minister, whose ambition had raised him to the rank of prime minister, at this stormy period, showed himself destitute of ability and resources. Complaints were soon raised against him on all sides, and, in August, 1788, the king found himself compelled to dismiss him, and to appoint Necker in his place; who, however, as is well known, was himself unable to quell the storm. Brienne had previously been nominated archbishop of Sens, in place of the cardinal De Luynes, and, to console him for the loss of his place as minister, Louis gave him some abbeys, and obtained for him, from Pius VI, a cardinal's hat. Brienne also took a journey to Italy, but without visiting Rome, and returned, in 1790, to France, to make arrangements

57

for the settlement of his debts, which, notwithstanding his immense income, were so considerable as to compel him to dispose of a portion of his valuable library. The cardinal de Loménie, as he was now called, took the oath prescribed to the clergy by the constitution, and, in March, 1791, he asked his dismission from the college of cardinals a favor which Pius willingly granted. Brienne had hoped, by this step, to save himself from the persecutions of the revolutionary party; but he was arrested at Sens, in November, 1793, was released, and, subsequently, again arrested, and, upon the morning of Feb. 16, 1794, was found dead in his prison. The ill treatment and abuse which he had suffered from his brutal guards, together with an indigestion, had brought on an apoplexy, of which he died, in the 67th year of his age.-His brother, the minister of war, Athanasius Louis Marie de Loménie, count de Brienne,-whose successor in the ministry was De la Tour du Pin,-fell, the same year, beneath the axe of the executioner. There is an Oraison funébre du Dauphin (Paris, 1766), by the cardinal de Brienne.

LOMONOSOFF, Michael Wasilowitz; the creator of the modern poetical language of his country, and the father of Russian literature; born in 1711, near Cholmogory, in the government of Archangel, in the village of Denissowskaia, where a monument was erected to his memory, in 1825, through the influence of Neophytus, bishop of Archangel. His father was a fisherman, whom he assisted in his labors for the support of the family. In winter a clergyman taught him to read. A poetical spirit and a love of knowledge were awakened in the boy by the singing of the psalms at church, and the reading of the Bible. Without having received any instruction, he conceived the plan of celebrating the wonders of creation and the great deeds of Peter I, in songs similar to those of David. But, hearing that there was a school at Moscow, in which scholars were instructed in Greek, Latin, German and French, he secretly left his father's house, and went to the capital to seek that instruction which his inquisitive spirit demanded. He was then sent to Kiev, and, in 1734, to the newly established academy of literature at St. Petersburg, where he studied natural science and mathematics. Two years later, he went to Germany, studied mathematics under Christian Wolf, in Marburg, read the German poets, and studied the art of mining, at Freyberg. On his journey to

58

Brunswick, he was seized by Prussian recruiting officers, and obliged to enter the service; but, having made his escape, he returned, by the way of Holland, to St. Petersburg (1741), where he received a situation in the academy, and was made director of the mineralogical cabinet. Soon after, he published his first celebrated ode (on the Turkish war and the victory of Pultawa). The empress Elizabeth made him professor of chemistry (1745), and, in 1752, he received the privilege of establishing a manufactory for colored glass beads, &c. As he had been the first to encourage an attempt at mosaic work in Russia, the government confided to him the direction of two large pictures in mosaic, intended to commemorate the deeds of Peter I. In 1760, the gymnasiums and the university were put under his inspection; and, in 1764, he was made counsellor of state. He died April 4, 1765. Catharine II caused his remains to be deposited with great pomp in the monastic church of saint Alexander Newski. Besides odes and other lyric pieces, he wrote Petreide, a heroic poem on Peter I, in two cantos, which is the best work of the kind that Russia has yet produced. Lomonosoff also wrote a Russian grammar, and several works on mineralogy, metallurgy and chemistry. His Grammar, and his Sketch of Russian History, have been translated into German and French. The Russian academy published his works in 6 vols., 4to. (2d edit., 1804, 3 vols.). Admiral Tschitschagoff has written a Life of Lomonosoff. (See Bowring's Russian Anthology.)

LOMUS, in Indian mythology; the first being created by Brama, which, to give itself up entirely to the contemplation of divine things, buried itself in the earth, and whose life will last longer even than that of Brama. In order to indicate the enormous duration of the life of Lomus, the Indians say, that Lomus has a body more than 90 miles long, covered with hair. Each time that a Brama dies, who lives 360 days, each day being equal to 4320 human years, Lomus pulls out a single hair from his body; and when, at last, all the hairs are gone, and even Vishnu and Mahadeva have ceased to live, then the whole universe is dissolved, and all returns to chaos, so that nothing remains but the eternal, original being; because with the last hair Lomus also dies.

LON, or LUN; a Gothic word, signifying wood. London has been derived from it. LONDON, the metropolis of the British empire, stands in lat. 51° 31′ N., and lon.

5′ 37′′ W. from the observatory at Greenwich. It is situated about 60 miles west from the sea, on the banks of the Thames, the mean width of which, at London, is about a quarter of a mile, and its average depth about 12 feet. The northern bank slopes gently upward, and its soil is chiefly gravel and clay, with a mixture of loam and sand. On the southern side, the surface is almost uniformly flat. The buildings on the northern, or Middlesex shore, follow the natural bend of the river, and rise somewhat amphitheatrically, from east to west, stretching northward, on an average length, to three miles from the river; and those on the southern or Surrey side, forming the chord of the semicircle, penetrate southward to an extent varying from one to three miles. The length of this vast aggregate, from east to west, i. e. from Hyde Park Corner to Mile End or Poplar, may be taken at seven miles and a half. Its circumference may be estimated at 30 miles; and its area, extending over 11,520 square acres, of which the river occupies 1120, is about 20 miles. Fashion and convenience have united to furnish various modes of designating the several parts of this colossal mass. Thus the ideal line, which is progressively moving more and more westerly, separates the world of fashion, or the West End, from the world of business. The city, so called, includes the most ancient and central division of the metropolis. It is rapidly being depopulated; as the chief traders and merchants occupy merely counting-houses and warehouses in the city, and, in proportion as wealth accumulates, flow towards the western regions of fashion. In the East End are found the docks and warehouses connected with ship-building and commerce, and every collateral branch of naval traffic. Southwark, or the Borough, on the southern bank of the Thames, the trans Tiberim of London, abounds with huge manufactories, breweries, iron-founderies, glasshouses, &c. It is the abode chiefly of workmen, laborers, and the lower classes of society, but interspersed with some considerable buildings, hospitals, prisons, and charitable foundations. The city of Westminster, including the houses of lords and commons, the law courts, royal palaces, and many government offices, may be designated as the Court End of London. The remaining portion can hardly be classified, or specifically denominated. It is a nondescript accumulation of streets, crescents, polygons, terraces and squares, occupying the northern portions

66

of

Wheat, 1,000,000 quarters, which four fifths, made into bread, form. 15,000,000 quartern loaves.

By a return from the corn exchange, it appears that the quantity of British and foreign corn and flour in bond, on the 1st June, 1830, was as follows:

The value of poultry, annually consumed, amounts to nearly £80,000, exclusive of game, the supply of which is variable. The principal market for live cattle is at Smithfield, held every Monday and Thursday. The markets for countrykilled cattle, pigs and poultry, are Leadenhall (where skins and leather, also, are exclusively sold); Newgate, on Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays; and Fleet (now Farringdon) market, rebuilt on a large scale, and opened in 1829. The supply of fruit and vegetables is equally abundant. The chief mart is Covent garden, where ranges of handsome shops have lately been erected on the estate of the duke of Bedford. There are at least 2000 acres, in the immediate vicinity of London, continually under spade-cultivation as kitchen-gardens; which, by judicious management, yield an interminable succession of valuable esculents. It has been calculated, that the cost of fruit and vegetables consumed annually in London, exceeds £1,000,000 sterling. The fruitgardens, exclusive of those belonging to private residences, are computed to occupy about 3000 acres, chiefly on the banks of the Thames in Surrey and Middlesex. Few cities are more abundantly supplied with fish of every description and quality. Turbot and brill of the finest quality are procured from the coast of Holland; sal

mon in profusion from the great rivers of
Scotland and Ireland, and, occasionally,
from the Thames; mackerel, codfish,
lobsters and oysters, from the river mouth.
A calculation makes the supply of fish at
Billingsgate, in the year 1828, as follows:
Fresh salmon,. . . . 45,446
Plaice, skate, &c., . 50,754 bushels.
Turbot,
Cod (fresh),
Herrings,
Haddocks,.
Mackerel,
Lobsters,.

87,958

447,130

3,336,407

482,493

3,076,700 1,954,600

And the number of fishing-vessels engaged in furnishing this supply, was registered, in the same year, at 3827. The consumption of ale and porter may be estimated from the following facts: It appears by the annual statement of the London brewers, for the year ending July 5, 1830, that the quantity of porter brewed by the ten principal houses, amounted to 1,077,285 barrels. The ale annually brewed, by the six principal ale-brewers, amounts to about 80,000 barrels. Still the consumption of malt liquor has decreased within the last three years; for, in 1827, the quantity returned, by the ten principal brewers, was 1,129,772 barrels. The decrease is owing, perhaps, partly to the deteriorated quality; for it appears, that, while the quantity actually brewed throughout England amounted, during the last ten years, to 6,170,000 barrels, the actual quantity of malt used decreased annually in a remarkable degree. But, besides this, the comparative cheapness, and more rapid excitation produced by ardent spirits, especially that deleterious compound called English gin, have induced the most destructive habits of intemperance among the lower classes. It is stated that there are about 11,000 public houses, i. e. houses for the sale of beer and spirituous liquors, in London alone, averaging a profit of 20 to 30 per cent. upon the property vested in them. The total consumption of gin, in London, has risen, during the last two years, from 12,000,000 to 24,000,000 gallons! The temperature of the atmosphere in London is considerably above that of the mean temperature of Middlesex, or the adjoining counties. It is generally humid, liable to sudden variations, and, occasionally, to fogs of extraordinary density during the winter months. The mean temperature is 51° 9 Fahrenheit. The extreme range of the thermometer may be taken in January, 1795, when it sank to 38° below