a while; but from various causes it gradually declined: and at the end of this century, such devastations had every where been made, both in church and state, that only some slight traces of it remained in a few places. § 12. The order of canons, which was devised by Chrodegang, and had been extensively introduced in the preceding century, Lewis the Meek cherished with great care, and extended through all the provinces of his empire. He also added an order of canonesses, which had been unknown in the Christian world till that time.3 A rule for each of these, he caused to be drawn up in the council of Aix-la-Chapelle, superseding the rule of Chrodegang; and these new rules continued to be followed in most of the convents of canons and canonesses, till the twelfth century, although they were disagreeable to the court of Rome. The compiler of the rule for canons was undoubtedly Amalarius, a presbyter of Metz; but whether he also drew up that for canonesses, is uncertain.4 From this time onward, numerous see the Acta Sanctor. tom. ii. Febr. p. 606, and Histoire Littéraire de la France, tom. iv. p. 447, &c. [Also, the Life of Benedict, by Ardo, one of his disciples; in Mabillon, Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bened. sæcul. iv. pt. i. tom. v. p. 183—215.— This Benedict appears to have been a very sincere man, and a great reformer of the monasteries; that is, one who brought them to greater uniformity in dress, living, worship, and usages. He was himself most rigorous in voluntary mortifications; and the rule of St. Benedict he reverenced, as if it had come immediately from God, and was the only true guide to heaven. Tr.] See Mabillon, Annales Ord. Bened. tom. ii. p. 428, &c. • Lud. Thomassin, Disciplina Eccles. Vetus et Nova, pt. i. lib. iii. cap. 42, 43, &c. Muratori, Antiquitates Ital. Medii Evi, tom. v. p. 185. 540, &c. and all the writers who treat of the order of canons; though they are not all of equal value. The least worthy of credit are, those who, belonging themselves to the order of canons, have treated of the origin and progress of that order; as, e. g. Raymund Chapponel, Histoire des Chanoines, Paris, 1699, 8vo. For these writers are so attached to the order, that they usually trace its origin back to Christ himself, and his Apostles, or at least to the first ages of the Christian church. [This ordinance of Lewis, for regulating the order of canons, is in Harduin's Concilia, tom. iv. p. 10551180. The following abstract, by Schlegel, contains its most essential features:"It contains 145 articles; of which the first 113 are mere extracts from the fathers and acts of councils, describing the duties of bishops and priests. These are followed by two sermons of Augustine, on living in associations. Then commence the rules framed by this council. First, the prevailing error, that the prescriptions of the Gospel were obligatory only upon monks and clergymen, is confuted; and then the distinction between monks and canons is defined. The latter may wear linen, eat flesh, hold private property, and enjoy that of the church; the former cannot. Yet, equally with the monks, they should avoid all vices, and practise virtue. They should live in well-secured cloisters, containing dormitories, refectories, and other necessary apartments. The number of canons in each cloister, should be proportioned to the exigencies of the church, to which it belonged. In their dress, they should avoid the extravagances of ornament and finery, and likewise uncleanliness and negligence, &c. The second part of the rule relates to canonesses, and contains twenty-eight articles. The first six are extracts from the fathers, and relate to the duties of ladies who consecrate themselves to convents of canons and canonesses were founded in every part of Europe, and endowed with ample revenues, by pious individuals. But this institution, like the others, very soon degenerated widely from the plan of its originators." § 13. Of the Greek writers these are the most distinguished. Photius, patriarch of Constantinople, a man of superior talents, and of various and extensive knowledge. His Bibliotheca, Epistles, and other writings, are yet highly valuable. - Nicephorus, also patriarch of Constantinople, who wrote against the opposers of images, and some other works." Theodorus Studites God. They may have private property; yet must commit the management of it to some kinsman or friend, by a public act or assignment. They may also have waiting maids, and eat in the refectory, and sleep in the dormitory. They are to be veiled, and to dress in black. Their business must be prayer, reading, and labouring with their hands; and especially, they must fabricate their own clothing, from the flax and wool given to them." Tr.] 5 Calmet, Histoire de Lorraine, tom. i. p. 591. Histoire Littéraire de la France, tom. iv. p. 536, &c. 6 See Camusat, Histoire des Journaux, tom. i. p. 87, &c. [Photius was of noble parentage, well educated, and perhaps the greatest genius of his age. He certainly was a great scholar. While in civil life, he cultivated all learning, sacred and profane, he was commander of the imperial body guards, first senator of Constantinople, and chief private secretary to the emperor. He was also employed on embassies. During a Syrian embassy, he wrote his famous Bibliotheca, οι Μυριόβιβλον, giving a critical account of 280 authors, which he had read, and frequently also summaries of their contents, with considerable extracts. As many of these authors are no longer extant, the account of them by Photius is extremely valuable. In the year 858, the emperor Michael III. deposed Ignatius, the patriarch of Constantinople, and Photius was ordained sub-deacon, deacon, priest, and patriarch, in four successive days. The friends of Ignatius, and the bishops of Rome, refused to acknowledge Photius as a legitimate patriarch. Yet he held the office, till A.D. 867; when, having offended the emperor, he was deposed, and Ignatius was restored. But in the year 877 Ignatius died, and His Photius again took the chair, till A. D. 886, when the new emperor, Leo the Philosopher, deposed and banished him to a convent in Armenia, where he died about A. D. 890. The Bibliotheca of Photius, Gr. and Lat. with the notes of Hæschelius, (the very faulty Latin by Schott,) was first published 1601, fol. and has been several times reprinted. A better edition was promised in the last century, but not produced. Epistles, to the number of 248, were published, Gr. and Lat., by R. Montague, Lond. 1651, fol. His Nomocanon, or collection of eccl. canons, embracing xiv. Tituli, with the Commentary of Theod. Balsamon, was published, Gr. and Lat. by both the Justells; the last in his Biblioth. Juris Canon. Paris, 1662, tom. ii. p. 789. Several additional letters and tracts have crept to light in different collections; but his extensive commentaries on scripture, his large lexicon, and several smaller works, remain still in MS. For an account of his writings, see Fabricius, Biblioth. Gr. vol. ix. p. 381-519. Of his public life, and the controversies in which he was involved, notice will be taken in the next chapter, § 27, &c. Tr.] He was See the Acta Sanctor. tom. ii. Martii ad diem xiii. p. 293. Oudin, Scriptores Eccles. tom. ii. p. 2, &c. [Nicephorus, after being secretary of state at Constantinople, and in high honour, retired from the world, and became a monk. He was learned, devout, and exceedingly zealous for image worship. made patriarch of Constantinople, A. D. 806; but was expelled his see, ten years after, by the emperor Leo V., who was opposed to image worship, and died in exile, A. D. 828. His best work is a Compendious History, from Maurice, A. D. 600, to A.D. 769; extant in the Corpus is likewise indebted to the controversy respecting images, for the greater part of his reputation among those who have come after him. Not much better or more learned were Theodorus Graptus, who suffered much in defence of image-worship'; Methodius, entitled the Confessor, because no penalties or pressure could induce him to abandon the defence of images1; Theodorus Abucara 2, Petrus Siculus 3, Nicetas David, and others, whose names would perhaps have not been handed down to this day, Hist. Byzantina. He also wrote a Chronologia Tripartita, or a Catalogue of public men, among the Hebrews, Greeks, Latins, &c. and a ZTIXоueтpía, or Index of canonical, ecclesiastical, and apocryphal books; annexing to each the number of lines (σTixo) it contained. Besides these historical works, he wrote a long Epistle to pope Leo III. containing his creed; several small collections of canons, and a number of books in defence of image-worship. Tr.] [Theodorus Studites was born at Constantinople A. D. 759, became a monk in 781, and abbot in 794, and four years after, head of the monastery Studium in Constantinople, whence his surname Studites. He was zealous, even to madness, in favour of image-worship; and for thirty years was the instigator of rebellions, and the dauntless leader of them (when out of prison) against the government, which was opposed to image-worship. He died A. D. 826, aged 67. Besides a few tracts on monkery, and monkish saints, he has left us 134 catechetical Discourses, and a vast number of inflammatory letters, in defence of imageworship, most of which, or at least parts of them, Baronius has inserted in his Annals. He was a man of some learning and talent; but wasted all his strength on the controversy respecting images, Tr.] [Theodorus Graptus was a monk of Palestine, went to Constantinople, a. D. 818, to plead the cause of image-worship, was banished four times for his abuse of emperors and others, and his seditious movements in favour of images; and at last died in exile, about A. D. 840. He has left us a Dispute, an Epistle, and a Creed; all in defence of images. Tr.] [Methodius Confessor was well born, at Syracuse in Sicily; went to Constantinople, and there became a monk. About A. D. 820, the patriarch sent him as his envoy to Rome. Here he was guilty of adultery, and did penance. Returning to Constantinople, he became very zealous in defence of image-worship, was banished, and imprisoned, and whipped. But in 842 he was made patriarch of Constantinople. He died A. D. 847; and has left us five orations, in praise of monkery, and a collection of Canones Pænitentiales. Some of his orations have passed for works of Methodius Patarensis, who flourished A. D. 290. Tr.] Peter Bayle, Dictionnaire, tom. i. p. 35, &c. [The word Abucara signifies bishop of Caria. He followed the party of Photius, but afterwards renounced it and joined that of Ignatius. According to Cave, he flourished A. D. 867. He has left us about forty Dissertations, Doctrinal and Polemic, against heretics, Jews, and Mahumedans; which were published, Gr. and Lat. by Jac. Gretser with the Hodegus of Anastasius, Ingoldstadt, 1606, 4to. Tr.] 3 [Peter Siculus, (flourished A D. 870,) was a learned nobleman, whom the emperor Basil I. sent to negociate an exchange of prisoners in Armenia. There he became acquainted with the sect of the new Manichæans, or Paulicians; the history of whose origin, progress, and decline, he afterwards composed; published Gr. and Lat. Ingoldstadt, 1604, 4to, and partially in Latin, by Baronius, Annal. tom. ix.; and in the Biblioth. Patr. tom. xxii. Tr.] [Nicetas David, a learned bishop of Paphlagonia, flourished about A. D. 880, and was strongly attached to the party of Ignatius, whose life he composed, full of reproaches against Photius. He also wrote encomiums on the twelve apostles, and several other saints; a defence of the synod of Chalcedon, and a commentary on some parts of Greg. Naz. His life of Ignatius was published, Gr. and Lat., with the Acts of the eighth general Council, Ingoldstadt, 1604, 4to; and in Harduin's Concilia, tom. v. p. 944-1009. Tr.] had not the Greeks been involved in contests with the Latins on several subjects, and among themselves respecting imageworship. Among the Syrians the name of Moses Barcepha is famous, and not undeservedly; for he possessed genius, and skill in writing, beyond most others, as his works evince." Jos. Sim. Asseman, Biblioth. Orient. Vaticana, tom. ii. p. 127, &c. [Moses Barcepha was a Syrian bishop of BethRaman, and inspector of the churches in Babylonia. He probably flourished near the close of the next century; Cave says, about A. D. 990.-His three books de Paradiso, in a Latin translation from the Syriac, by Andr. Masius, were published, Antw. 1569, 8vo, and then in the Biblioth. Patr. tom. xvii. p. 456. The Greek writers omitted by Dr. Mosheim, are the following: Nicephorus, Chartophylax, who flourished, perhaps, A. D. 801, and wrote two Epistles to Theodosius, a monk of Corinth, containing solutions of several difficult questions in Ethics; extant, Gr. and Lat., in the Jus Gr. et Roman. lib. v. p. 341, and Lat. in the Biblioth. Patr. tom. xii. Josephus, archbishop of Thessalonica, brother of Theodorus Studites, and also a zealot for image-worship. He was deposed, A. D. 809, exiled, and died after A. D. 816. Gretzer (de Cruce, tom. ii. p. 1200) has published, Gr. and Lat., an Oration of his, on the Exaltation of the Holy Cross; and Baronius (Annales, ad ann. 808, § 22.) has given us an Epistle of his in Latin. Ignatius, a grammarian and deacon at Constantinople, and then metropolitan of Nice. He flourished A. D. 810, and was alive A. D. 828. His life of the patriarch Tarasius is extant, Lat. in Surius, and in Bolland on Feb. 25th. His life of the patriarch Nicephorus was published, Gr. and Lat., by Henschenius, and Papebroch, on March 12th. Naucratius, a monk of Constantinople, very active in favour of image-worship, for which he was often imprisoned. He flourished from A. D. 813, till after A. D. 820. Several letters addressed to him are given us by Baronius; and a very long one of his, containing an account of the sufferings of the image-worshippers, is inserted, Latin, in the Biblioth. Patr. tom. xiv. p. 903. Cave (Hist. Lit. tom. ii.) gives a specimen of the Greek, but did not deem it worth publishing entire. Theophanes, the brother of Theodorus Graptus, (see note, p. 193,) and of the same character, conduct, and fortune. Yet he became metropolitan of Nice, about A. D. 845. We have a Hymn, consisting of nine odes, in memory of his brother; edited by Combefis, Gr. and Lat., in his Orig. Constantinop. p. 224. Michael Syncellus, leader of the choir at Constantinople, a zealot for imageworship, in which cause he suffered much. He flourished about A. D. 830; and wrote an Encomium on St. Dionys. Areop. which is extant, Gr. and Lat., in the Opp. Dionys. Areop. tom. ii. p. 207; also an Encomium on the holy angels and archangels of God; extant, Gr. and Lat., in Combefis, Auctuar. Nov. tom. i. p. 1525. George Hamartolus, an Archimandrite, who flourished about A. D. 842, and wrote a Chronicon from the creation to A. D. 842, which still exists in MS. From it the succeeding chronologists, Cedrenus, Theophanes, Glycas, &c., have copied all that is valuable. Ignatius, son of the emperor Michael Curopalata, castrated and banished by Leo the Armenian, lived a monk about thirty years, was made patriarch of Constantinople A. D. 847; quarrelled with Barda, and was deposed and banished A. D. 858. In the year 867, Photius, his competitor, was deposed, and Ignatius restored. He died in 878, aged 80 years. Two letters and one discourse of his are extant, Latin, in Harduin's Concilia, tom. v. p. 791. 872. 937. Metrophanes, metropolitan of Smyrna, A. D. 858, 859, and A. D. 867-880. He was a strenuous opposer of Photius, and rose as he fell. He has left us a letter, giving us the history of Photius from A. D. 858 to 870; which is extant, in Latin, in Baronius, Annales, ad ann. 870, 453; and Gr. and Lat. in Harduin's Concilia, tom. v. p. 1111. Basil the Macedonian, Greek emperor from A. D. 867-886. He wrote exhortations to his son Leo, some orations, addresses, and epistles, still extant; besides some things which are lost. § 14. At the head of the Latin writers may justly be placed Rabanus Maurus, whose last office was that of archbishop of Mentz. He was the common preceptor of Germany and France, with whom no one in this century can be compared, either for genius or extent of learning, or the multitude of books that he composed. Whoever acquaints himself with the opinions of Rabanus Maurus, learns all that the best of the Latins. thought and believed for about four centuries, for his writings were in the hands of all the learned. Agobard of Lyons, a man Michael Psellus, a philosopher who flourished A. D. 870, is supposed to have written some of the pieces which go under the name of another Michael Psellus that lived in the eleventh century; particularly a paraphrase on most of the books of Aristotle, a Dialogue on the operations of demons, a tract concerning demons, &c. Stylianus, surnamed Mapa, metropolitan of Neo-Cesarea in the Provincia Euphratensis, who flourished about A.D. 870. He was a strong partizan of Ignatius, in opposition to Photius; for which he suffered a temporary deprivation of his see. He has left us two Epistles, Gr. and Lat., in Harduin's Concilia, tom. v. p. 1122. 1130. Michael, the monk, Syncellus to the patriarch Ignatius; flourished a. D. 878; and wrote an Encomium on Ignatius; extant, Gr. and Lat., in Harduin's Concilia, tom. v. p. 1009; and a life of Theodorus Studites, from which Baronius, in his Annals, has made various extracts. George, chartophylax of the great church at Constantinople, and archbishop of Nicomedia, about A. D. 880. He was a warm friend of Photius. Several orations, and some poems of his, in praise of saints, are extant, Gr. and Lat., in Combefis, Auctuar. Nov. Paris, 1648, tom. i. p. 995. Leo the Philosopher, Greek emperor from A. D. 886, to A. D. 911. He has left us sixteen sacred orations; some letters and tracts, pоxеiρоv voμiкдν, sive Delectus Legum, in lx. Tituli; a huge digest of the laws of the Greek empire, published, Paris, 1647, Gr. and Lat., in vii. tomes, fol. Novella Constitutiones III.; and Tactica, seu de Re Militari Opus. Nicolaus, surnamed Mysticus, patriarch of Constantinople, from A. D. 892, to A. D. 903, when he was deposed and banished for opposing the divorce of the empress, and the marriage of another. But in 911 he was restored, and lived till 924. He has left us eight Epistles; extant, in the Collections of Councils, or in Baronius' Annals. Tr.] See the Acta Sanctor. tom. i. Febr. p. 500. Histoire Littéraire de la France. tom. v. p. 151. [Also Mabillon, Acta Sanctor. Ord. Benedict. tom. vi. p. 1-45. -Rabanus, or Hrabanus, surnamed Maurus, was of French extract, and born of respectable parentage, at Mentz, A. D. 776. He studied first at Fulda, where he was made deacon in 801. The next year he removed to Tours, to study under the famous Alcuin. After one or two years, he returned to Fulda, and was made head of the school there, at the age of twenty-five. As an instructor, he was so celebrated as to draw young men of talents from a great distance. Among his pupils were, Walafrid Strabo, Servatus Lupus, and others, who were among the first scholars of their age. In the year 822, he was made abbot of Fulda, in which office he was for a time popular; but at length the monks coniplained, that he was so engaged in writing books, as to neglect his active duties. He now resigned his abbacy, and retired to a literary life. This was in 842. Five years after, he was made archbishop of Mentz; in which office he continued till his death, A. D. 857.-He wrote commentaries on all the canonical books, and several of the apocryphal; also sermons, letters, and tracts. Most of his works, as published, are comprised in six vols. folio, Cologne, 1627. Tr.]-In his Penitential, published at Ingoldstadt, by P. Steuart, in 1616, in tom. Insignium Auctorum tam Græcorum quam Latinorum, is a mutilated but most decisive testimony against transubstantiation. It mentions an identification of the sacramental elements with our Lord's very body and blood born of the Virgin Mary, as a |