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The pride of the

A. M. cir. 3244.
B. C. cir. 760.
Anno Olymp.
Quintæ I.

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15 What mean ye that ye daughters of Zion are haughty, A. M. cir. 3244. beat my people to pieces, and and walk with stretched forth Ante Urbem grind the faces of the poor? saith the Lord Gop of hosts.

Conditam 7:

necks and wanton eyes, walking and mincing as they go,

y

B. C. cir. 760. Anno Olymp. Quintæ 1. Ante Urbem Conditam 7.

16 Moreover the LORD saith, Because the and making a tinkling with their feet:

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Verse 15. And grind the faces] The expression and the image is strong, to denote grievous oppression; but is exceeded by the prophet Micah, chap. iii. 1-3 :"Hear, I pray you, ye chiefs of Jacob,

And ye princes of the house of Israel :
Is it not yours to know what is right?
Ye that hate good and love evil :
Who tear their skins from off them,
And their flesh from off their bones;
Who devour the flesh of my people.;
And flay from off them their skin;
And their bones they dash in pieces;
And chop them asunder, as morsels for the pot :
And as flesh thrown into the midst of the caldron."

In the last line but one, for NƆ keasher, read, by the transposition of a letter, kisher, with the Septuagint and Chaldee.

Verse 16. And wanton eyes-" And falsely setting off their eyes with paint"] Hebrew, falsifying their eyes. I take this to be the true meaning and literal rendering of the word; from p shakar. The Masoretes have pointed it, as if it were from p sakar, a different word. This arose, as I imagine, from their supposing that the word was the same with po sakar, Chaldee, "intueri, innuere oculis;" or that it had an affinity with the noun psikra, which the Chaldeans, or the rabbins at least, use for stibium, the mineral which was commonly used in colouring the eyes. See Jarchi's comment on the place. Though the colouring of the eyes with stibium be not particularly here expressed, yet I suppose it to be implied; and so the Chaldee paraphrase explains it; stibio linitis oculis, "with eyes dressed with stibium." This fashion seems to have prevailed very generally among the Eastern people in ancient times; and they retain the very same to this day,

Pietro della Valle, giving a description of his wife, an Assyrian lady born in Mesopotamia, and educated at Bagdad, whom he married in that country, (Viaggi, Tom. I., Lettera 17,) says, "Her eyelashes, which are long, and, according to the custom of the East, dressed with stibium, (as we often read in the Holy Scriptures of the Hebrew women of old, Jer. iv. 30; Ezek. xxiii. 40; and in Xenophon, of Astyages the grandfather of Cyrus, and of the Medes of that time, Cyropæd. lib. i.,) give a dark, and at the same time a majestic, shade to the eyes." "Great eyes," says Sandys, Travels, p. 67, speaking of the Turkish women, "they have in principal repute; and of those the blacker they be the more amiable; insomuch that they put between the eyelids and the eye a certain black powder, with a fine long pencil, made of a mineral, brought from the kingdom of Fez, and called Alcohole; which by the not disagreeable staining of the lids doth better set forth the whiteness of the eye; and though it be

.* Heb. deceiving with their eyes.- - Or, tripping nicely. troublesome for a time, yet it comforteth the sight, and repelleth ill humours." Vis ejus (stibii) astringe ac refrigerare, principalis autem circa oculos; namque ideo etiam plerique Platyophthalmon id appellavere, quoniam in calliblepharis mulierum dilatat oculos; et fluxiones inhibet oculorum exulcerationesque. "It is astringent in its virtue, and refrigerant, and to be chiefly employed about the eyes, and it is called Platyophthalmon, for being put into those ointments with which women beautify their eyes, it dilates them, removes defluxions, and heals ulcerations that any be may about the eyelids."-Pliny, Nat. Hist. xxxiii. 6. Ille supercilium madida fuligine tactum Obliqua producit acu, pingitque trementes Attollens oculos. Juv. Sat. ii. 93.

One his eyebrows, tinged with black soot,
Lengthens with an oblique bodkin, and paints,
Lifting up his winking eyes.

"But none of those [Moorish] ladies," says Dr. Shaw, Travels, p. 294, fol., "take themselves to be completely dressed, till they have tinged the hair and edges of their eyelids with alkahol, the powder of lead ore. This operation is performed by dipping first into the powder a small wooden bodkin of the thickness of a quill; and then drawing it afterwards through the eyelids, over the ball of the eye." Ezekiel, chap. xxiii. 40, uses the same word in the form of a verb, y cachalt eynayik, "thou didst dress thine eyes with alcahol;" which the Septuagint render cσtißišov tovs, opOahuovs cov, "thou didst dress thine eyes with stibium;" just as they do when the word 5 phuch is employed: compare Kings ix. 30; Jer. iv. 30. They supposed, therefore, that phuch and no cachal, or in the Arabic form, alcahol, meant the same thing; and probably the mineral used of old for this purpose was the same that is used now; which Dr. Shaw (ibid. note) says is "a rich lead ore, pounded into an impalpable powder." Alcoholados; the word p meshakkeroth in this place is thus rendered in an old Spanish translation.-Sanctius. See also Russell's Nat. Hist. of Aleppo, p. 102.

The following inventory, as one may call it, of the wardrobe of a Hebrew lady, must, from its antiquity, and the nature of the subject, have been very obscure even to the most ancient interpreters which we have of it; and from its obscurity must have been also peculiarly liable to the mistakes of transcribers. However it is rather matter of curiosity than of importance; and is indeed, upon the whole, more intelligible and less corrupted than one might have reasonably expected. Clemens Alexandrinus, Pædag. lib. ii., c. 12, and Julius Pollux, lib. vii., c. 22, have each of them preserved from a comedy of Aristophanes, now lost, a similar catalogue of the several parts of the dress and ornaments of a Grecian lady; which, though much more

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Quintæ I. Ante Urbem Conditam 7

d Judges viii. 21.

Jer. xiii. 22; Nah. ii. 5.- - Or, net-works.
flappeden with hondis for joye, and geeden'; and with
theire feet in curyous goying geeden:-17. the Lord
schall fully make ballid the top of the doughtris of
Spon: and the Lord the her of hem schal naken. And
for ournemente schal be schenschip.

* Deut. xxviii. 24.a Heb. make naked.- Chap. xlvii. 2, 3; capable of illustration from other writers, though of later date, and quoted and transmitted down to us by two different authors, yet seems to be much less intelligible, and considerably more corrupted, than this passage of Isaiah. Salmasius has endeavoured, by comparing the two quotations, and by much critical 18. En that day, the Lord schal don awey the ourconjecture and learned disquisition, to restore the true nement of Schoon and hoosis; 19. and beegis, and reading, and to explain the particulars; with what suc- brochis, and armeerclis, and mytrís; 20. and coombis, cess, I leave to the determination of the learned reader, and rybanys and reversis at the hemmys, and oynment whose curiosity shall lead him to compare the boris and ereringis; 21. and ryngis and jemmys in of the comedian with this of the prophet, and to ex- the frount bongonge; 22. and chaunginge clothis, and amine the critic's learned labours upon it. Exercit. litil_pallis, and scheetis, and prynys; 23. and scheweris, Plinian, p. 1148; or see Clem. Alex. as cited above, and necke kercheurs, and fyletis, and roketis; 24. and edit. Potter, where the passage, as corrected by Sal-ther schal be for swot smel, stynke, and for gyrdil, a litil coord; and for crisp her, ballionesse; and for masius, is given. brest boond an heyr.

passage

Nich. Guel. Schroederus, professor of oriental languages in the University of Marpurg, has published a very learned and judicious treatise upon this passage of Isaiah. The title of it is, "Commentarius Philologico-Criticus de Vestitu Mulierum Hebræarum ad lesai jii. ver. 16-24. Lugd. Bat. 1745." 4to. As I think no one has handled this subject with so much judgment and ability as this author, I have for the most part followed him, in giving the explanation of the several terms denoting the different parts of dress, of which this passage consists; signifying the reasons of my dissent, where he does not give me full satisfaction. Bishop Lowth's translation of these verses is the following:

18. In that day will the Lord take from them the

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19. The pendants, and the bracelets, and the veils;

20. The tires, and the fetters, and the zones,

And the perfume-boxes, and the amulets; 21. The rings, and the jewels of the nostrils; 22. The embroidered robes, and the tunics,

And the cloaks, and the little purses,

23. The transparent garments, and the fine linen vests,

And the turbans, and the mantles.

24. And there shall be instead of perfume, a putrid ulcer;

And instead of well-girt raiment, rags ; And instead of high-dressed hair, baldness; And instead of a zone, a girdle of sackcloth; And sun-burnt skin, instead of beauty. The daughters of Zion-walk] What is meant by these several kinds of action and articles of dress cannot be well conjectured. How our ancestors understood them will appear from the following, which is the translation of these verses in my old MS. Bible:—

16. The doughterls of Syon wenten with stright out necks, and in beckes (winking) of eegen, geeden and

Some of these things are hard to be understood, though I think this version as good as that of the very learned bishop: but there is little doubt that articles of clothing and dress bore these names in the fourteenth century.

Verse 17. The Lord will smite-" Will the Lord humble"] TaπEIwoεl, Septuagint; and so Syriac and Chaldee. For 5 sippach they read shaphal. Instead of Yehovah, many MSS. have 78 Adonai.

Will discover their secret parts-" Expose their nakedness"] It was the barbarous custom of the conquerors of those times to strip their captives naked, and to make them travel in that condition, exposed to the inclemency of the weather; and, the worst of all, to the intolerable heat of the sun. But this to the women to such as those here described, who had indulged themwas the height of cruelty and indignity; and especially selves in all manner of delicacies of living, and all the

superfluities of ornamental dress; and even whose faces

had hardly ever been exposed to the sight of man.
This is always mentioned as the hardest part of the lot
of captives. Nahum, chap. iii. 5, 6, denouncing the
fate of Nineveh, paints it in very strong colours :-
"Behold, I am against thee, saith JEHOVAH, God of
hosts:

And I will discover thy skirts upon thy face;
And I will expose thy nakedness to the nations;
And to the kingdoms thy shame.

And I will throw ordures upon thee;

And I will make thee vile, and set thee as a gazingstock."

Verse 18. Ornaments about their feet-"The ornaments of the feet rings"] The late learned Dr. Hunt, professor of Hebrew and Arabic in the University of Oxford, has very well explained the word y both verb and noun, in his very ingenious Dissertation on Prov. vii. 22, 23. The verb means to skip, to bound, to dance along; and the noun, those ornaments of the feet which the Eastern ladies wore; chains or rings,

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• Or, sweet balls. Or, spangled ornaments. which made a tinkling sound as they moved nimbly in walking. Eugene Roger, Description de la Terre Sainte, Liv. ii. ch. 2, speaking of the Arabian women, of the first rank in Palestine, says,-"Au lieu de brasselets elles ont de menottes d'argent, qu'elles portent aux poignets et aux pieds; où sont attachez quantitè de petits annelets d'argent, qui font un cliquetis comme d'une cymbale, lorsqu'elles cheminent ou se mouvent quelque peu." See Dr. Hunt's Dissertation; where he produces other testimonies to the same purpose from authors of travels. Hindoo women of il fame wear loose ornaments one above another on their ankles, which at every motion make a tinkling poise. See WARD..

And their cauts" the net-works"] I am obliged to differ from the learned Schroederus almost at first setting out. He renders the word 'D' shebisim by soliculi, little ornaments, bullæ, or studs, in shape representing the sun, and so answering to the following word D' saharonim, lunula, crescents. poses the word to be the same with

He supshemishim,

the yod in the second syllable making the word diminutive, and the letter mem being changed for beth, a letter of the same organ. How just and well founded his authorities for the transmutation of these letters in the Arabic language are, I cannot pretend to judge; but as I know of no such instance in Hebrew, it seems to me a very forced etymology. Being dissatisfied with this account of the matter, I applied to my good friend above mentioned, the late Dr. Hunt, who very kindly returned the following answer to my inquiries:

"I have consulted the Arabic Lexicons, as well MS. as printed, but cannot find 'D'aw shebisim in any of them, nor any thing belonging to it; so that no help is to be had from that language towards clearing up the meaning of this difficult word. But what the Arabic denies, the Syriac perhaps may afford; in which I find the verb wa shabas; to entangle or interweave, an etymology which is equally favourable to our marginal translation, net-works, with paw shabats, to make chequer work, or embroider, (the word by which Kimchi and others have explained a shabis ;) and has moreover this advantage over it, that the letters v sin and samech are very frequently put for each other, but 3 tsaddi and ↳ samech scarcely ever. Aben Ezra joins D'' shebisim and D'DƆy achasim, which immediately precedes it, together; and says that D' shabis was the ornament of the legs, as Day eches was of the feet. by van braw

כמו עכס של His words are שיקים י.L רגלים

Verse 20. The tablets] The words on bottey hannephesh, which we translate tablets, and Bishop Lowth, perfume boxes, literally signify houses of the soul; and may refer to strong-scented bottles used for pleasure and against fainting; similar to bottles with

21 The rings, and jewels,

h

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22 The changeable suits of apparel, and the mantles, and the wimples, and the crisping-pins,

Quintæ I. Ante Urbem Conditam 7.

5 Heb. houses of the soul. Dan. iii. 21, in the margin. otto of roses, worn by the ladies of the East to the present time.

But it

Vere 21. Nose-jewels—“The jewels of the nostril."] nizmey haaph. Schroederùs explains this, as many others do, of jewels, or strings of pearl hanging from the forehead, and reaching to the upper part of the nose; than which nothing can be more ridiculous, as such are seldom seen on an Asiatic face. appears from many passages of Holy Scripture that the phrase is to be literally and properly understood of nose-jewels, rings set with jewels hanging from the nostrils, as ear-rings from the ears, by holes bored to receive them.

Ezekiel, enumerating the common ornaments of women of the first rank, has not omitted this particular, and is to be understood in the same manner, chap. xvi. 11, 12. See also. Gen. xxiv, 47 :—. "And I decked thee with ornaments; And I put bracelets upon thine hands, And a chain on thy neck : And I put a jewel on thy nose,

And ear-rings on thine ears,

And a splendid crown upon thine head.'

there is a manifest allusion to this kind of ornament, And in an elegant proverb of Solomon, Prov. xi. 22, which shows it to have been used in his time :"As a jewel of gold in the snout of a swine; So is a woman beautiful, but wanting discretion." This fashion, however strange it may appear to us, was formerly and is still common in many parts of the East, among women of all ranks. Paul Lucas, speaking of a village or clan of wandering people, a little on this side of the Euphrates, says, (2d Voyage du Levant, tom. i., art. 24,) "The women, almost all of them, travel on foot; 'I saw none handsome among them. They have almost all of them the nose bored; and wear in it a great ring, which makes them still more deformed." But in regard to this custom, better authority cannot be produced than that of Pietro della Valle, in the account which he gives of the lady before mentioned, Signora Maani Gioerida, his own wife. The description of her dress, as to the ornamental parts of it, with which he introduces the mention of this particular, will give us some notion of the taste of the Eastern ladies for finery. "The ornaments of gold and of jewels for the head, for the neck, for the arms, for the legs, and for the feet (for they wear rings even on their toes) are indeed, unlike those of the Turks, carried to great excess, but not of great value for in Bagdad jewels of high price are either not to be had, or are not used; and they wear such only as are of little value, as turquoises, small rubies, emeralds, carbuncles, garnets, pearls, and the like. My spouse dresses herself with all of them according to their fashion; with exception, however, of certain ugly rings

The punishment of the

ISAIAH.

pride of the Jewish women 23 The glasses, and the fine of a stomacher a girding of sack- 4. M. cir. 3244. Anno Olymp. linen, and the hoods, and the cloth; and burning instead of

A. M. cir. 3244.
B. C. cir. 760.

Quintæ I. Ante Urbem Conditam 7.

veils.

i

24 And it shall come to pass, that instead of sweet smell there shall be stink and instead of a girdle a rent; and instead of well-set hair baldness; and instead

Gen. xli. 42. Chap. xxii. 12; Mic. i. 16.—— Heb. might.

of very large size, set with jewels, which, in truth, very absurdly, it is the custom to wear fastened to one of their nostrils, like buffaloes: an ancient custom, however, in the East, which, as we find in the Holy Scriptures, prevailed among the Hebrew ladies even in the time of Solomon, Prov. xi. 22. These nose-rings, in complaisance to me, she has left off; but I have not yet been able to prevail with her cousin and her sisters to do the same; so fond are they of an old custom, be it ever so absurd, who have been long habituated to it." Viaggi, Tom. i., Let. 17.

It is the left nostril that is bored and ornamented with rings and jewels. More than one hundred drawings from life of Eastern ladies lie now before me, and scarcely one is without the nose-jewel: both the arms and wrists are covered with bracelets, arm-circles, &c., as also their legs and feet; the soles of their feet and palms of their hands coloured beautifully red with henna, and their hair plaited and ornamented superbly. These beautiful drawings are a fine comment on this chapter.

beauty.

m

B. C. cir. 760.
Arno Olymp.
Quinta L.
Ante Urbe ar
Conditam 7.

25 Thy men shall fall by the sword, and thy mighty in the war. 26 And her gates shall lament and mourn; and she being "desolate shall sit upon the ground. m Jer. xiv. 2;-Lam. i. 4.- Or, emptied.- Heb. cleansed. P Lam. n. 10. looked upon as a mark of extreme effeminacy. Juvenal, Sat. ii., 65, &c. Publius Syrus, who lived when the fashion was first introduced, has given a humorous satirical description of it in two lines, which by chance have been preserved :"Equum est, induere nuptam ventum textilem? Palam prostare nudam in nebula linea ?”

See

Verse 24. Instead of sweet smell-" perfume."] A principal part of the delicacy of the Asiatic ladies con sists in the use of baths, and of the richest oils and perfumes; an attention to which is in some degree necessary in those hot countries. Frequent mention is made of the rich ointments of the spouse in the Song of Solomon, Cant. iv. 10, 11 :—

"How beautiful are thy breasts, my sister, my spouse!
How much more excellent than wine;

And the odour of thine ointments than all perfumes!
Thy lips drop as the honey-comb, my spouse!
Honey and milk are under thy tongue :

And the odour of thy garments is as the odour of
Lebanon."

The preparation for Esther's being introduced to King Ahasuerus was a course of bathing and perfuming for a whole year; "six months with oil of myrrh, and six months with sweet odours;" Esth. ii. 12. See the notes on this place. A diseased and loathsome habit of body, instead of a beautiful skin, softened and made agreeable with all that art could devise, and all that nature, so prodigal in those countries of the richest perfumes, could supply, must have been a punishment the most severe and the most mortifying to the delicacy of these haughty daughters of Sion.

Verse 23. The glasses] The conjunction vau, and AND the glasses, is added here by forty-three of Kennicott's and thirty-four of De Rossi's MSS., and one of my own, ancient, as well as by many editions. Verse 23. And the veils." The transparent garments."] Ta diaḍavŋ Aakwvika, Sept. A kind of silken dress, transparent, like gauze; worn only by the most elegant women, and such as dressed themselves elegantius quam necesse esset probis, "more elegantly than modest women should." Such garments are worn to the present day; garments that not only show the shape of every part of the body, but the very colour of the skin. This is evidently the case in some scores of drawings of Asiatic females now before me. This sort of garments was afterwards in use among the Greeks. Prodicus, in his celebrated fable (Xenoph. Memorab. Socr. lib. ii.) exhibits the personage of Sloth in this dress: Eobnra de, e§ is av pahiora úpa dia-ki, taken as a noun for adustio, burning, is without λαμποι :

"Her robe betray'd

Through the clear texture every tender limb,
Height'ning the charms it only seem'd to shade;
And as it flow'd adown so loose and thin,

Burning instead of beauty-" A sunburnt skin."] Gaspar Sanctius thinks the words n ki thachath an interpolation, because the Vulgate has omitted them. The clause'n ‘ɔ ki thachath yophi seems to me rather to be imperfect at the end. Not to mention that

example, and very improbable. The passage ends abruptly, and seems to want a fuller, conclusion.

In agreement with which opinion, of the defect of the Hebrew text in this place, the Septuagint, according to MSS. Pachom. and 1 D. ii., and Marchal., which are of the best authority, express it with the same evi

Her stature show'd more tall, more snowy white her dent marks of imperfection at the end of the sentence;

skin."

thus : ταύτα σοι αντι καλλωπισμού The two latter add dov. This chasm in the text, from the loss probably of three or four words, seems therefore to be of long standing.

They were called multitia and coa (scil. vestimenta) by the Romans, from their being invented, or rather introduced into Greece, by one Pamphila of the island of Cos. This, like other Grecian fashions, was received Taking ki in its usual sense, as a particle, and at Rome, when luxury began to prevail under the em-supplying lech from the oot of the Septuagint, it might perors. It was sometimes worn even by the men, but possibly have been originally somewhat in this form :

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"May it not be cohey, wrinkles instead of beauty?' as from ' yaphah is formed yephi, yophi; from 15 marah, meri, &c.; so from cahah, to be wrinkled, cohey."-Dr. JUBB.. The ki is wanting in one MS., and has been omitted by several of the ancients.

Verse 25. Thy mighty men.] For 11 geburathech an ancient MS. has 7 gibborech. The true reading, from the Septuagint, Vulgate, Syriac, and Chaldee, seems to be 2 gibborayich.

Verse 26. Sit upon the ground.] Sitting on the ground was a posture that denoted mourning and deep distress. The prophet Jeremiah (Lam. ii. 8) has given it the first place among many indications of sorrow, in the following elegant description of the same state of distress of his country :

"The elders of the daughter of Sion sit on the ground, they are silent : They have cast up dust on their heads; they have girded themselves with sackcloth ; The virgins of Jerusalem have bowed down their heads to the ground."

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the land of Judea.

mans might have an eye on the customs of the Jewish nation, as well as those of their country, in the several marks of sorrow they have set on this figure. The psalmist describes the Jews lamenting their captivity in the same pensive posture: By the waters of Babylon we sat down and wept, when we remembered thee, O Zion.' But what is more remarkable, we find Judea represented as a woman in sorrow sitting on the ground, in a passage of the prophet, that fore tells the very captivity recorded on this medal." Mi. Addison, I presume, refers to this place of Isaiah; and therefore must have understood it as foretelling the destruction of Jerusalem and the Jewish nation by the Romans whereas it seems plainly to relate, in its first and more immediate view at least, to the destruction of the city by Nebuchadnezzar, and the dissolution of the Jewish state under the captivity at Babylon.-L.

:

Several of the coins mentioned here by Mr. Addison are in my own collection and to such I have already referred in this work. I shall describe one here. On the obverse a fine head of the emperor Vespasian with this legend, Imperator Julius Cæsar Vespasianus Augustus, Pontifex Maximus, Tribunitia Potestate Pater Patria, Consul VIII.

of Palestine, the emperor standing on the left, close On the reverse a tall palm tree, emblem of the land to the tree, with a trophy behind him; on the right, Judea under the figure of a female captive sitting on the ground, with her head resting on her hand, the elbow on her knee, weeping. Around is this legend, Judea Capta. Senatus Consulto. However this prediction may refer proximately to the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, I am fully of opinion that it ultimately refers to the final ruin of the Jewish state by the Romans. And so it has been understood by the general run of the best and most learned interpreters and critics.

a

CHAPTER IV.

Great

The havoc occasioned by war, and those other calamities which the prophet had been describing in the preceding chapter, are represented as so terribly great that seven women should be left to one man, 1. blessedness of the remnant that shall be accounted worthy to escape these judgments, 2-4. The privileges of the Gospel set forth by allusions to the glory and pomp of the Mosaic dispensation, 5, 6.

A. M. cir. 3244. B. C. cir. 760.

Anno Olymp.

Quintæ I.

a

e our re

AND in that day seven women | only let us be called by thy A. M. cir. 3244.

to take away

f

shall take hold of one man, name,

Ante Urbem saying, We will beat our own proach.

Conditam 7.

Chap. ii. 11, 17.

2. In that day shall the branch

bread, and wear our own apparel:

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NOTES ON CHAP. IV. Verse 1. And seven women] The division of the chapters has interrupted the prophet's discourse, and broken it off almost in the midst of the sentence. "The numbers slain in battle shall be so great, that seven women shall be left to one man." The prophet has described the greatness of this distress by images and adjuncts the most expressive and forcible. The young women, contrary to their natural modesty,

Luke i. 25. iii. 8; vi. 12.

B. C. cir. 760. Anno Olymp. Quintæ I. Ante Urbem Conditam 7.

- Jer. xxiii. 5; Zech.

shall become suitors to the men: they will take hold of them, and use the most pressing importunity to be married. In spite of the natural suggestions of jealousy, they will be content with a share only of the rights of marriage in common with several others; and that on hard conditions, renouncing the legal demands of the wife on the husband, (see Exod. xxi. 10,) and begging only the name and credit of wedlock, and to be freed from the reproach of celibacy. See chap.

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