rewards, intended for themselves only. Christians, on the contrary, had an unprecedented zeal for proselyting. They thus interfered not merely with old prejudices and sincere reverence for time-honoured institutions, but they assailed the worldly interests of various classes of men; from priests to the makers of images and shrines, and the vendors of cattle for sacrifice. All the nations, from time immemorial, had been accustomed to regard temples, statucs, oracles, a consecrated priesthood, and sacrifices to the gods, as essential to religion; and as the followers of the lowly Jesus had none of these things, they regarded them as atheists. This prejudice was increased by the fact that Jews always spoke of the leader of the Nazarenes as a criminal condemned and executed by the laws of his country. Crucifixion was deemed by the Romans so peculiarly ignominious, that they never allowed any of their own citizens, not even the meanest and the worst, to be put to death in that manner. With minds thus pre-occupied, no wonder they accused Christians of worshipping "a dead malefactor," instead of the Immortal Spirits, which they were accustomed to adore.

The first Roman persecution under which they suffered was of short duration, and seems to have been a freak of imperial tyranny, directed toward them on account of their general unpopularity. Tacitus, the historian, describes the conflagration which destroyed a great portion of Rome, sixty-four years after the birth of Christ, and adds: "To suppress the common rumour that he had himself set fire to the city, Nero procured others to be accused, and inflicted exquisite punishments upon those people who were held. in abhorrence for their crimes, commonly known by the name of Christians. They were thus called from Christus, who, in the reign of Tiberius, was put to death as a criminal, by the Procurator Pontius Pilate. This superstition, though checked for awhile, broke out again, and spread not only over Judea, the source of this evil, but reached the city [Rome] also, whither flow from all quarters all things vile and shameful, and where they find shelter and

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encouragement. At first, those only were apprehended who confessed themselves of that sect; but they afterward disclosed the existence of a vast multitude, all of whom were condemned; not so much for the crime of burning the city, as by the enmity of mankind toward them. These executions were so contrived as to expose them to derision and contempt. Some were covered with the skins of wild beasts, and torn to pieces by dogs; some were crucified; others, having been daubed over with combustible materials, were set up as lights in the night time." This terrible scene was in the gardens of Nero's palace, and while innocent human beings were consumed with slow agonies, horses were racing through the grounds, for the amusement of the populace, and the insane emperor guided his chariot among them, by that horrid light.

It has been suggested that attention might have been attracted toward the Christians at the time of the great conflagration, in consequence of their frequent descriptions of the destruction of the world by fire, and the establishment of a new kingdom upon earth. It is true these descriptions were as old as the Hindoos and Egyptians, that they figured largely in the writings of Zoroaster, and were mixed with the teaching of Stoic philosophers. But in the minds of Jews and Christians these ideas were inseparably connected with the kingdom of their Messiah; and as one class was very impatient under Roman dominion, and both detested Roman idolatry, their descriptions of the millenium were often mixed with glowing images of the burning of a proud and mighty city, with its palaces, temples, and images. Even as early as the time of Nero, it is not impossible that something of the kind, misunderstood and exaggerated, afforded a plausible pretext for the imperial cruelty.

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Fortunately, the fierce persecution under Nero did not spread far beyond the city of Rome, though the magistrates were astonished to find the despised sect so numerous. more extensive persecution prevailed in the time of Domitian, ninety-three years after the birth of Christ. The em

peror's own cousin, Flavius Clemens, a quiet and gentle character, was put to death, on the charge of practices at variance with the established religion of the empire; and his wife, Domitilla, was exiled for the same offence. No wonder Domitian's anger was excited when the unpopular doctrines thus approached the threshold of his own palace. Many Christians were banished, or put to death, during this persecution, especially in Asia Minor. There is a tradition generally believed, but doubted by some learned men, that the title of King, frequently bestowed upon Jesus by the Christians, excited the jealousy of Domitian, and that he caused search to be made for his surviving relatives, in the line of David. At that time, the sceptre had long "departed from Judah," and been successively in the hands of other families. The old royal line was languishing in forgotten obscurity, and the Roman government certainly seemed to have nothing to fear from that quarter. According to traditions of the Christian Fathers, two grandsons of the apostle Jude were discovered and brought before the tribunals. They confessed that they were descendants of David, but in very humble circumstances; having only a small farm, which they cultivated with their own hands. Being asked concerning the Messiah, they replied that his kingdom was not of this earth; that he would reign in heaven until the time appointed for the destruction of the world, and then he would appear in glory, to judge both the living and the dead. The emperor, perceiving their simplicity, dismissed them as harmless.

The Christian Scriptures do not inform us concerning the death of any of the apostles, except James the Greater. The only other sources of information are the writings of Josephus, and traditions handed down by the Christian Fathers. The earliest of these writings allude only to James the Greater, and James the Less, to Peter and Paul, as martyrs. But as time passed on, and the founders of Christianity acquired more importance in the world, stories multiplied concerning their missionary travels in distant regions of the earth, and their perils by fire and sword;

insomuch, that John alone escaped martyrdom, and he by aid of a miracle. Whether many of the chosen Twelve did in reality ever leave Jerusalem cannot be ascertained. But certain it is, that the sufferings of those actively engaged in propagating Christianity could not be easily exaggerated. Nothing could be more affecting than the sad simplicity of Paul's statement: "I think God has set forth us the apostles as it were appointed unto death. Even unto this present hour, we hunger and thirst, and are naked and buffeted, and have no certain dwelling place, and labour, working with our own hands. Being reviled, we bless; being persecuted, we suffer it. We are made as the filth of the earth, and the offscouring of all things. Of the Jews, five times received I forty stripes save one. Thrice was I beaten with rods, once was I stoned, thrice I suffered shipwreck, a night and a day I have been in the deep. In journeyings often, in perils of waters, in perils of robbers, in perils by mine own countrymen, in perils by the heathen, in perils in the city, in perils in the wilderness, in perils in the sea, in perils among false brethren. In weariness and painfulness, in watchings often, in hunger and thirst, in fastings often, in cold and nakedness."

As Paul's own writings form a prominent portion of the Christian Scriptures, and as his adventures are also recorded by his friend and companion, Luke, more is known of his labours, than of any others among the first teachers of Christianity. Little is said concerning most of the Twelve, on whom the Holy Spirit descended at Pentecost. It is incidentally stated that after the death of Stephen, the church at Jerusalem were scattered abroad, "except the apostles;" and the Christian Scriptures are thenceforth silent concerning nearly all of them. Peter, who was often associated with Paul, is the only one of them who makes a prominent figure in the subsequent pages. The first council, held at Jerusalem, ordained that Paul should go as a missionary among the Gentiles, and Peter among the Jews. Large numbers of their countrymen remained in Persia, when a remnant of two tribes returned VOL. II.-18

to Judea with Ezra, and it seems likely that Peter went thither, to convert them to Christianity; for the last information the Scriptures give concerning him is contained in a letter written by himself, apparently from Babylon, and addressed to various churches in Asia. Traditions concerning him abound. Eusebius, the earliest Christian historian, relates that Peter's wife was put to death during a period of persecution, and was consoled and encouraged by her husband during her last moments. There was also a tradition which passed into general belief, that he was in Rome during the time of Nero's persecution, and that some of the Christian converts persuaded him to leave the city till the storm was over. When he had gone about two miles on the Appian Way, he met Jesus travelling toward Rome. Struck with astonishment, he exclaimed: "Lord, whither goest thou?" Jesus looked upon him with gentle sadness, and replied: "I go to Rome to be crucified a second time," and immediately vanished. Peter considered this a sign that he was doing wrong to avoid danger. He accordingly returned, and persisted in preaching and baptizing. It is related, on the same traditional authority, that both he and Paul were arrested during the last year of Nero's reign, and thrown into the Mamartine dungeons under the Capitol. There they still continued to preach, and many prisoners were converted by them; as were also two centurions appointed to guard them. There being no water to baptize them, Peter prayed, and a fountain gushed up through the stone floor. When condemned to be crucified, he chose to be suspended with his head downward, saying he was not worthy to die in the same position as his Lord. As Peter was a married man in the life time of Jesus, he must of course have been aged, if living, at the time of the conflagration of Rome.

It is recorded in the Acts of the Apostles that Paul was at Rome two years, during which "he dwelt in his own hired house, and received all that came in unto him, teaching those things which concern the Lord Jesus Christ, with all confidence, no man forbidding him." That he was