than by convincing them that it is low, mean, and vulgar. And such the treating system really is. Hence it is meeting with the strongest opposition in all places from idlers, corner-boys, and those who are called spongers. If the AntiTreating League be taken up earnestly, and worked effectively through the country for five or six years, it will, as far as one can forecast, do as much if not more towards ending intemperance, especially amongst the country people in Ireland, than any movement hitherto started. Not the least hopeful sign of its success, is the fact that many earnest total abstainers share this belief, and are the most zealous promoters and supporters of the movement. And whilst doing so, they cease not, both by word and example, to promote total abstinence as well. D. HALLINAN, P.P., V.G. [9] THE MODERN SCHOOL OF I N the Annual Review of Contemporary Physiology, edited by two French psychologists of note, Binet and Beaunis, we read: A laboratory for experiments in psychophysiology is annexed to the course of Professor Thié on this science, thus constituting a complete course of education in psycho-physiology, which at present-in the year 1896-does not yet exist in France.' There are two points of interest in this quotation: the existence of a comparatively new science, and the fact that, in modern times and in modern science, a Catholic University-that of Louvain-should give the lead, not only to the whole body of Catholic higher education, but also to entire France, a country that prides itself on its system. of higher education as being fully up to modern science and thought. A country which, in all its State University teaching, is atheistic, or at least un-Christian, that despises Catholic teaching as being behind the times, finds itself in the humiliating position of being obliged to follow in the steps of a famous Catholic University, in organising a complete system of teaching in physiological psychology, the most famous school of psychology in Germany for the last quarter of a century.1 The The very name of this comparatively new science shows that it must necessarily be of interest to all those who, through pleasure or duty, are scientists or philosophers. object of the present article is to give a brief sketch of its origin and development, and to show its position in relation to philosophy. That it has a relation is evident from its very name, Physiological Psychology. As Professor Ladd remarks, in his introduction to the subject, 'The satisfactory definition of a science is often one 1 The lectures in question are given at the Neo-Thomistic school of philosophy, attached to the University of Louvain, by Prof. Armand Thiéry, whose work on optical illusions is the most important that exists at present, on this subject. Ueber Geometrisch-Optische Tauschungen. of the latest and one of the most difficult achievements of that science.2 That is why we begin by describing it, and as we progress in our study, we see what elements are essential, and what are only accidental to the science. That is the analytical and inductive part of the work of our intelligence, so well described by Aristotle and St. Thomas Aquinas. A complete description of Psycho-Physiology leads us, moreover, to understand its very possibility, its place in the list of sciences, its importance in itself, and its relation with philosophy and connected sciences. In the course of our enquiry we shall have occasion to show its origin, method, and its results. The very name, physiological psychology, indicates the object of this science in our own complex nature, and that it is a science founded on external physical and physiological observation on the one hand, and on the internal observation of our perceptive and conscious states, on the other hand. We may well call it 'experimental psychology,' because, whilst its object is psychological, namely the phenomena of perception and of consciousness, nevertheless, these phenomena are studied especially in their co-relation with the physiological phenomena which provoke them. We may evidently consider any conscious phenomena as an effect, and thus be led to seek its causes. If the immediate causes are psychological, they in their turn suppose physiological processes as their instrumental causes, and thus in studying these processes we are led outside the domain of psychology, in its usual sense. Psycho-physiology is a natural science, one therefore which begins by studying phenomena; in this case the phenomena of our conscious state. We analyse, classify, and compare them, in order to arrive at the nature of our conscious soul. All these phenomena, being concrete, can be studied scientifically, independently of all metaphysical problems on the nature of the soul and its activities.3 There are three psychologies [remarks Prof. Thiéry]— physical psychology, so called because its object is the research 2 Outlines of Physiological Psychology. Longmans, 1893. 3 Note, even now, that all conscious phenomena are representative. This idea will be developed later on. of the nature of soul, in general; then comes physiological psychology, less general than the preceding, since it is not concerned with the vital phenomena common to all living bodies, but with those common to a great number of them. It is the immediate introduction to natural biological sciences, which are all more special than it. Thirdly, our study of phenomena being completed, we derive hence the meta-physics' of the soul, that is to say, the science of the substance which living phenomena reveal to us. 4 We now see better how it is that the field of physiological psychology consists in provoking systematically, by a continuous series of physical and physiological excitants, certain states of conscious feeling and cognition. We say 'conscious,' because otherwise these states could not become the object of our study; we only know what in us is conscious. Once we have well determined these states, we study how we manifest these 'conditions of our being' to those outside us, how we 'exteriorise' these states. And we observe, classify, and measure by special methods and instruments, the organic antecedents and physiological consequents, that are connected with our internal modifications.5 As an example, and to render clearer this condensed summary of the field of research held in view, let us consider what is known as Weber's law. It is a matter of common experience that we see better with two lighted candles at night than with one; and that, were one of these candles blown out, we would immediately perceive the difference in the intensity of the light. But would we notice the difference if a candle were added or subtracted from ten others? If a pound weight is placed in my hand, I am conscious that I require more muscular effort to sustain it than were an ounce placed instead. But if fifteen ounces and then a pound were placed, consecutively, in my hand, would the difference of weight be perceptible? Similar experiments are applicable to all our senses, and the results have been generalised by Weber, as follows: There is certainly a relation between the intensity of our Psychologie Naturelle. A modern Commentary on the De Anima of St. Thomas and of Aristotle. Louvain: 1902. Read, on this point, Revue Néo-Scholastique, Feb., 1895. sensation and the quantity of the excitant which causes this sensation, but this relation is not one of direct proportion The quantity to be added to an excitant of given intensity, in order to provoke a perceptible difference in our sensation, is not absolute; but though relative, is constant.' The application of this law, and its particular determination as regards each of our five external senses, is the object of a special branch of psycho-physiology, which is termed psychophysics. We may note, in passing, that this has given rise to much misunderstanding, many objecting that a sensation, being a psychic act, cannot be measurable, much less measured. There is here a confusion of terms, which will be explained at length later on. It has been determined, for instance, that in order to perceive the difference in weight of two objects, the greater of the two must weigh one-third more than the lesser; so that if a pound weight be placed in my hand, the next heavier body, perceptible, as such, will be 11⁄2 lb. If a three pound weight be the first weight, I will not perceive any weight under four pounds, as being different from the first, in weight. These results were obtained only after a long series of experiments. In fact, for some of our senses, the results are incomplete, and are not always amenable to Weber's law, especially so in the case of smell and taste. The patience exhibited by modern scientists does them honour. Norr, for instance, examined seven different intensities or energies of sound, applied to three series of one thousand experiments each; all this to determine the adaptability of the sense of hearing to Weber's law! This example we have chosen, illustrates well what was said as to the 'continuous series of experiments,'' the artificial provocation of certain determined states of conscience or feeling,' which are parts of the methods of research in psychophysiology. Returning to the description of our subject, physiological physchology, we see then, that it is the study of our concrete, conscious life, in its psychological and not in its moral aspect. But unlike psychology proper, it considers this life from the special point of view of its co-relation with the physiological |