lehthyo

rin.

ICH

ICHTHYOPHAGI, FISH-EATERS, a name given phagi, to a people, or rather to several different people, who lehthypelived wholly on fishes; the word is Greek, compounded -- of rxovs, piscis, " fish," and Qayu, edere," to eat." The Ichthyophagi spoken of by Ptolemy are placed by Sanson in the provinces of Nanquin and Xantong. Agatharcides calls all the inhabitants between Carmania and Gedrosia by the name Ichthyophagi.

From the accounts given us of the Ichthyophagi by Herodotus, Strabo, Solinus, Platarch, &c. it appears indeed that they had cattle, but that they made no use of them, excepting to feed their fish withal. They made their houses of large fish-bones, the ribs of whales serving them for their beams. The jaws of these animals served them for doors; and the mortars wherein they pounded their fish, and baked it at the sun, were nothing else but their vertebræ.

ICHTHYPERIA, an old term in Natural History, which is applied by Dr Hill to the bony palates and

ICO

na

Iconium.

mouths of fishes, usually met with either fossil, in sin- Ichthypegle pieces, or in fragments. They are of the same substance with the bufonite; and are of very various fi gures, some broad and short, others longer and slender; some very gibbose, and others plainly arched. They are likewise of various sizes, from the tenth of an inch to two inches in length, and an inch in breadth.

ICKENILD-STREET, is that old Roman highway, denominated from the Icenians, which extended from Yarmouth in Norfolk, the east part, of the kingdom of the Iceni, to Barley in Hertfordshire, giving name in the way to several villages, as Ickworth, Icklingham, and Ickleton in that kingdom. From Barley to Royston it divides the counties of Cambridge and Hertford. From Ickleford it runs by Tring, crosses Bucks and Oxfordshire, passes the Thames at Gering, and extends to the west part of England.

ICOLMKIL. See IONA.

ICONIUM, at present COGNI, formerly the capital fcity.

tes

Teonium, city of Lycaonia in Asia Minor. St Paul coming to Iconoclas. Iconium (Acts xiii. 51. xiv. 1. &c.) in the year of Christ 45, converted many Jews and Gentiles there. It is believed, that in his first journey to this city, he converted St Thecla, so celebrated in the writings of the ancient fathers. But some incredulous Jews excited the Gentiles to rise against Paul and Barnabas, so that they were upon the point of offering violence to them, which obliged St Paul and St Barnabas to Ay for security to the neighbouring cities. St Paul undertook a second journey to Iconium in the year 51; but we know no particulars of his journey, which relate peculiarly to Iconium.

ICONOCLASTES, or ICONOCLASTE, breakers of images; a name which the church of Rome gives to all who reject the use of images in religious matters.The word is Greek, formed from xv, imago, and λaçu, rumpere," to break.”

In this sense, not only the reformed, but some of the eastern churches, are called Iconoclastes, and esteemed by them heretics, as opposing the worship of the images of God and the saints, and breaking their figures and representations in churches.

The opposition to images began in Greece under the reign of Bardanes, who was created emperor of the Greeks a little after the commencement of the eighth century, when the worship of them became common. See IMAGE. But the tumults occasioned by it were quelled by a revolution, which, in 713, deprived Bardanes of the imperial throne. The dispute, however, broke out with redoubled fury under Leo the Isaurian, who issued out an edict in the year 726, abrogating, as some say, the worship of images, and ordering all the images, except that of Christ's crucifixion, to be removed out of the churches; but according to others, this edict only prohibited the paying to them any kind of adoration or worship. This edict occasioned a civil war, which broke out in the islands of the Archipelago, and by the suggestions of the priests and monks, ravaged a part of Asia, and afterwards reached Italy. The civil commotions and insurrections in Italy were chiefly promoted by the Roman pontiffs, Gregory I. and II. Leo was excommunicated, and his subjects in the Italian provinces violated their allegiance, and rising in arms either massacred or banished all the emperor's deputies and officers. In consequence of these proceedings, Leo assembled a council at Constantinople in 730, which degraded Germanus, the bishop of that city, who was a patron of images; and he ordered all the images to be publicly burnt, and inflicted a variety of severe punishments upon such as were attached to that idolatrous worship. Hence arose two factions; one of which adopted the adoration and worship of images, and on that account were called iconoduli or iconolatra; and the other maintained that such a worship was unlawful, and that nothing was more worthy the zeal of Christians than to demolish and destroy those statues and pictures which were the occasions of this gross idolatry; and hence they were distinguished by the titles of icoromachi, (from uxav, image, and pax, I contend,) and iconoclasta. The zeal of Gregory II. in favour of image worship, was not only imitated, but even surpassed by his successor Gregory III. in consequence of which the Italian provinces were torn from the Grecian empire,

Constantine, called Copronymus, from xowges, "ster

tes.

cus," and evous, name," "because he was said to have Icon elas. defiled the sacred font at his baptism, succeeded his father Leo in 741, and in 754 convened a council at Constantinople, regarded by the Greeks as the seventh œcumenical council, which solemnly condemned the worship and use of images. Those who, notwithstanding this decree of the council, raised commotions in the state, were severely punished; and new laws were enacted, to set bounds to the violence of monastic rage. Leo IV. who was declared emperor in 775, pursued the same measures, and had recourse to the coercive influence of penal laws, in order to extirpate idolatry out of the Christian church. Irene, the wife of Leo, poisoned her husband in 780; assumed the reins of empire during the minority of her son Constantine, and in 786 summoned a council at Nice in Bithynia, known by the name of the second Nicene council, which abrogated the laws and decrees against the new idolatry, restored the worship of images and of the cross, and denounced severe punishments against those who maintained that God was the only object of religious adoration. In this contest, the Britons, Germans, and Gauls, were of opinion, that images might be lawfully continued in churches, but they considered the worship of them as highly injurious and offensive to the Supreme Being. Charlemagne distinguished himself as a mediator in this controversy: he ordered four books concerning images to be composed, refuting the reasons urged by the Nicene bishops to justify the worship of images, which he sent to Adrian the Roman pontiff in 790, in order to engage him to withdraw his approbation of the decrees of the last council of Nice. Adrian wrote an answer; and in 794, a council of 300 bishops, assembled by Charlemagne at Francfort on the Maine, confirmed the opinion contained in the four books, and solemnly condemned the worship of images. In the Greek church, after the banishment of Irene, the controversy concerning images broke out anew, and was carried on by the contending parties, during the half of the ninth century, with various and uncertain success. The emperor Nicephorus appears upon the whole to have been an enemy to this idolatrous worship. His successor, Michael Curopalates, surnamed Rhangabe, patronized and encouraged it. But the scene changed on the accession of Leo the Armenian to the empire; who assembled a council at Constantinople in 814, that abolished the decrees of the Nicene council. His successor Michael, surnamed Balbus, disapproved the worship of images, and his son Theophilus treated them with great severity. However, the empress Theodora, after his death, and during the minority of her son, assembled a council at Constantinople in 842, which reinstated the decrees of the second Nicene council, and encouraged image worship by a law. The council held at the same place under Photius, in 879, and reckoned by the Greeks the eighth general council, confirmed and renewed the Nicene decrees. In commemoration of this council, a festival was instituted by the superstitious Greeks, called the feast of orthodoxy. The Latins were generally of opinion, that images might be suffered as the means of aiding the memory of the faithful, and of calling to their remembrance the pious exploits and virtuous actions of the persons whom they represented; but they detested all thoughts of paying them the least

P2

Icosandria.

Ides.

"a man or husband"); the name of the 12th class in Icosandria Linnæus's sexual method, consisting of plants with hermaphrodite flowers, which are furnished with 20 or more stamina, that are inserted into the inner side of the calyx or petals. See BOTANY, p. 192.

ICTINUS, a celebrated Greek architect who lived about 430 B. C. built several magnificent temples, and among others that of Minerva at Athens.

IDA, in Ancient Geography, a mountain situated in the heart of Crete where broadest; the highest of all in the island; round, and in compass 60 stadia (Strabo); the nursing place of Jupiter, and where his tomb was visited in Varro's time.-Another Ida, a mountain of Mysia, or rather a chain of mountains (Homer, Virgil), extending from Zeleia on the south of the territory of Cyzicus to Lectum the utmost promontory of Troas. The abundance of its waters became the source of many rivers, and particularly of the Simois, Scamander, Esopus, Granicus, &c. It was covered with green wood, and the elevation of its top opened a fine extensive view of the Hellespont and the adjacent countries; from which reason it was frequented by the gods during the Trojan war, according to Homer. The top was called Gargara (Homer, Strabo); and celebrated by the poets for the judgment of Paris on the beauty of the three goddesses, Minerva, Juno, and Venus; to the last of whom he gave the preference.

Iconoclas. marks of religious homage or adoration. The countes cil of Paris, assembled in 824 by Louis the Meek, reB solved to allow the use of images in the churches, but severely prohibited rendering them religious worship. Nevertheless, towards the conclusion of this century, the Gallican clergy began to pay a kind of religious homage to the images of saints, and their example was followed by the Germans and other nations. However, the Iconoclasts still had their adherents among the Latins; the most eminent of whom was Claudius bishop of Turin, who, in 823, ordered all images, and even the cross, to be cast out of the churches, and committed to the flames; and he wrote a treatise, in which he declared both against the use and worship of them. He condemned relicks, pilgrimages to the Holy Land, and all voyages to the tombs of saints; and to his writings and labours it was owing, that the city of Turin, and the adjacent country, was, for a long time after his death, much less infected with superstition than the other parts of Europe. The controversy concerning the sanctity of images was again revived by Leo bishop of Chalcedon, in the 11th century, on occasion of the emperor Alexius's converting the figures of silver that adorned the portals of the churches into money in order to supply the exigencies of the state. The bishop obstinately maintained that he had been guilty of sacrilege; and published a treatise, in which he affirmed, that in these images there resided an inherent sanctity, and that the adoration of Christians ought not to be confined to the persons represented by these images, but extended to the images themselves. The emperor assembled a council at Constantinople, which determined, that the images of Christ and of the saints were to be honoured only with a relative worship; and that invocation and worship were to be addressed to the saints only as the servants of Christ, and on account of their relation to him as their master. Leo, dissatisfied even with these absurd and superstitious decisions, was sent into banishment. In the western church, the worship of images was disapproved and opposed by several considerable parties, as the Petrobossians, Albigenses, Waldenses, &c. till at length this idolatrous practice was entirely abolished in many parts of the Christian world by the Reformation. IMAGE.

See

ICONOGRAPHIA (derived from sma," image," and yeapa, "I describe), the description of images or ancient statues of marble and copper; also of busts and semi-busts, penates, paintings in fresco, mosaic works, and ancient pieces of miniature.

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ICONOLATRE, or ICONOLATERS (from sixWD and λarigiva," I worship,") or ICONODULI (from and duλow," I serve;") those who worship images: A name which the Iconoclastes give to those of the Romish communion, on account of their adoring images, and of rendering to them the worship only due to God. See ICONOCLASTS and IMAGE.

ICOSAHEDRON, in Geometry, a regular solid, consisting of 20 triangular pyramids, whose vertices meet in the centre of a sphere supposed to circumscribe it; and therefore have their height and bases equal; wherefore the solidity of one of these pyramids multiplied by 20, the number of bases, gives the solid contents of the icosahedron.

ICOSANDRIA (from sxes, "twenty," and mg,

IDALIUM, in Ancient Geography, a promontory on the east side of Cyprus. Now Capo di Griego; with a high rugged eminence rising over it, in the form of a table. It was sacred to Venus; and hence the epithet Idalia given her by the poets. The eminence was covered by a grove; and in the grove was a little town, in Pliny's time extinct. Idalia, according to Bochart, denotes the place or spot sacred to the goddess.

IDEA, the reflex perception of objects, after the original perception or impression has been felt by the mind. See METAPHYSICS, passim; and LOGIC, Part I.

IDENTITY, denotes that by which a thing is itself, and not any thing else; in which sense identity differs from similitude, as well as diversity. See ME

TAPHYSICS.

IDES, in the ancient Roman kalendar, were eight days in each month; the first of which fell on the 15th of March, May, July, and October; and on the 13th day of the other months.-The origin of the word is contested. Some will have it formed from du," to see;" by reason the full moon was commonly seen on the days of the ides; others from sides, “species, figure," on account of the image of the full moon then visible others from idulium or ovis idulis, a name given by the Hetrurians to a victim offered on that day to Jupiter: others from the Hetrurian word iduo, i. e. divido; by reason the ides divided the moon into two nearly equal parts.

:

The ides came between the KALENDS and the NONES; and were reckoned backwards. Thus they called the 14th day of March, May, July, and October, and the 12th of the other months, the pridie idus, or the day before the ides; the next preceding day they called the tertia idus; and so on, reckoning always backwards till they came to the NONES. This method of reckoning time is still retained in the chancery of

Rome,

in a state of idiocy. It was formerly adjudged, that Idiocy. the issue of an idiot was legitimate, and his marriage valid. A strange determination! since consent is absolutely requisite to matrimony, and neither idiots nor lunatics are capable of consenting to any thing. And therefore the civil law judged much more sensibly, when it made such deprivations of reason a previous impediment, though not a cause of divorce if they happened after marriage. And modern resolutions have adhered to the sense of the civil law, by determining that the marriage of a lunatic, not being in a lucid interval, was absolutely void. But as it might be difficult to prove the exact state of the party's mind: at the actual celebration of the nuptials, upon this account (concurring with some private family reasons*), * See Prithe statute 15 Geo. II. c. 30. has provided, that the vate acts, marriage of lunatics and persons under phrensies (if 23 Geo. II. found lunatics under a commission, or committed to the care of trustees under any act of parliament) before they are declared of sound mind by the lord chancellor, or the majority of such trustees, shall be totally

void.

Idiots and persons of nonsane memory, as well as infants and persons under duress, are not totally disabled either to convey or purchase, but sub modo only. For their conveyances and purchases are voidable, but not actually void. The king, indeed, on behalf of an idiot, may avoid his grants or other acts. But it hath been said, that a non compos himself, though he be afterwards brought to a right mind, shall not be permitted to allege his own insanity in order to avoid such grant: for that no man shall be allowed to stultify himself, or plead his own disability. The progress of this notion is somewhat curious. In the time of Edward I. non compos was a sufficient plea to void a man's own bond and there is a writ in the register for the alienor himself to recover lands alienated by him during his insanity; dum fuit non compos mentis suæ, ut dicit, &c. But under Edward III. a scruple began to arise, whether a man should be permitted to blemish himself, by pleading his own insanity; and, afterwards, a defendant in assize having pleaded a release by the plaintiff since the last continuance, to which the plaintiff replied (ore tenus, as the manner then was) that he was out of his mind when he gave it, the court adjourned the assize; doubting, whether as the plaintiff was sane both then and at the commencement of the suit, he should be permitted to plead an intermediate deprivation of reason; and the question was asked, how he came to remember to release, if out of his senses when he gave it? Under Henry VI. this way of reasoning (that a man should not be allowed to disable himself, by pleading his own incapacity, because he cannot know what he did under such a situation) was seriously adopted by the judges in argument; upon a question whether the heir was barred of his right of entry by the feoffment of his insane ancestor? And from these loose authorities, which Fitzherbert does not scruple to reject as being contrary to reason, the maxim that a man shall not stultify himself, hath been handed down as settled law: though later opinions, feeling the inconvenience of the rule, have in many points endeavoured to restrain it. And, clearly, the next heir or other person interested, may, after the death of the idiot or Ron.compos, take advantage of his incapcity and avoid,

the

c. 6.

Idleness.

Idio the grant. And so, too, if he purchases under this disability, and does not afterwards upon recovering his senses agree to the purchase, his heir may either wave or accept the estate at his option. In like manner, an infant may wave such purchase or conveyance, when he comes to full age; or, if he does not then actually agree to it, his heir may wave it after him. Persons, also, who purchase or convey under duress, may affirm or avoid such transaction, whenever the duress is ceased. For all these are under the protection of the law; which will not suffer them to be imposed upon through the imbecility of their present condition; so that their acts are only binding, in case they be afterwards agreed to when such imbecility ceases. Yet the guardians or committees of a lunatic, by the statute 11 Geo. III. c. 20. are empowered to renew in his right, under the directions of the court of chancery, any lease for lives or years, and apply the profits of such renewal for the benefit of such lunatic, his heirs, or executors. See LUNACY.

IDIOM, among grammarians, properly signifies the peculiar genius of each language, but is often used in a synonymous sense with dialect. The word is Greek, dia," propriety;" formed of dies, proper,

66

end fall somewhere. The court also of Areopagus at Idleness Athens punished idleness, and exerted a right of examining every citizen in what manner he spent his time; Idolatry. the intention of which was, that the Athenians, knowing they were to give an account of their occupations, should follow only such as were laudable, and that there might be no room left for such as lived by unlawful arts. The civil law expelled all sturdy vagrants from the city; and, in our own law, all idle persons or vagabonds, whom our ancient statutes describe to be "such as wake on the night and sleep on the day, Blackst. and haunt customable taverns and ale-houses, and route Commenabout; and no man wot from whence they come, netaries, whether they go;" or such as are more particularly described by statute 17 Geo. II. c. 5. and divided into three classes, idle and disorderly persons, rogues and vagabonds, and incorrigible rogues ;-all these are of fenders against the good order, and blemishes in the government, of any kingdom. They are therefore all punished, by the statute last mentioned; that is to say, idle and disorderly persons with one month's imprisonment in the house of correction; rogues and vagabonds with whipping, and imprisonment not exceeding six months; and incorrigible rogues with the like discipline, and confinement not exceeding two years; the breach and escape from which confinement in one of an inferior class, ranks him among incorrigible rogues; and in a rogue (before incorrigible) makes him a felon, and liable to be transported for seven years. Persons harbouring vagrants are liable to a fine of forty shillings, and to pay all expences brought upon the parish thereby in the same manner as, by our ancient laws, whoever harboured any stranger for more than two nights, was answerable to the public for any offence that such his inmate might commit.