sure that Aristotle does not still exercise a secret sway in the English universities. This at least I could easily evince, that in the times of Charles II., James II., and William III., while the mathematical philosophy prevailed nearly throughout Great Britain, yet at Oxford and Cambridge, the old philosophy was in higher repute, with some, than the new discoveries.

$ 7. The expositors of Scripture among the Reformed, who adorned the commencement of the century, all trod in the steps of Calvin; and according to his example, they did not search after recondite meanings and types, but investigated solely the import of the words of the sacred writers. But this uniformity, in process of time, was done away, by the influence of two very distinguished interpreters, Hugo Grotius, and John Cocceius. The former, departing but slightly from Calvin's manner, investigates only the literal sense, in the books of both the Old Testament and the New; considers the predictions of the ancient prophets, as being all fulfilled in events anterior to the coming of Christ, and therefore in the letter of them, as not to be applied to Christ yet he supposes, that in some of those prophecies, especially in such as the writers of the New Testament apply to Christ, there is, besides the literal sense, a secret or mystical sense, concealed under the persons, events, and things described, which relates to Christ, to his history and mediation. Very different were the principles of Cocceius. He supposed that the whole Old Testament history was a kind of emblematic history of Christ, and of the christian church; that the prophecies of the ancient prophets, in their literal import, treated of Jesus Christ; and that whatever was to occur in the christian church, down to the end of time, was all prefigured in the Old Testament, in some places more clearly, and in others less so '. Each of these men had a multitude of followers and disciples. With the former, were, besides the Arminians, those adherents to the old Calvinistic system, who, from Gisbert Voet, the principal antagonist of Cocceius, were

It is commonly said: "Cocceius finds Christ every where, but Grotius no where, in the pages of the Old Testament." The first part of the adage is most true: the last is not so true. For Grotius, as his commentaries fully

show, does find Christ in many passages of the Old Testament; though in a different way from Cocceius, that is, not in the words, but in the things and the persons.

called Voetians; also many of the English, and a great number of the French. The latter was highly admired by not a few of the Dutch, the Swiss, and the Germans. Yet there are many, who stand intermediate between these two classes of interpreters agreeing with neither, throughout, but with each, in part. Moreover, neither the Grotian interpreters, nor the Cocceian, are all of the same description; but each class is subdivided into various subordinate classes. No small portion of the English Episcopalians, despising these modern guides, think the first doctors of the nascent church ought to be consulted, and that the sacred books should be expounded, just as the Fathers expounded them 2.

§ 8. The doctrines of christianity were disfigured, among the Reformed, just as among the Lutherans, by the Peripatetic, or rather the scholastic paint. The entire subjugation of these doctrines to the empire of Aristotle, and their reduction to the form of a Peripatetic science, was first resisted by the Arminians; who followed a more simple mode of teaching, and inveighed most loudly against such divines as subjected the doctrines relating to man's salvation to the artificial distinctions and phraseology of the schools. Next followed the Cartesians and the Cocceians; the former of whom applied the principles of their philosophy to the explication of revealed truth; while the latter supposed that the whole system of theology would appear to the best advantage, if dressed up in the form and garb of a divine covenant with men. But grave and wise men, among the Reformed, were pleased with neither of these. For they objected that the sacred doctrines would be rendered equally obscure and intricate by the Cartesian distinctions and peculiar conceptions, as by the Peripatetic phraseology and distinctions and the application of the analogy of a covenant to the whole of theology, was productive of this evil, among others which no good man can approve, that it causes the phraseology and the subtle distinctions of the forum to be

2 These are expressly refuted by the learned Daniel Whitby, in his Dissertatio de Scripturarum Interpretatione secundum Patrum Commentarios, London, 1714. 8vo. [Whitby has here

collected the absurd and whimsical expositions of the fathers, and placed them together in their most ridiculous attitude. See Maclaine's note. Tr.]

transferred to the schools of theology, and to produce there vain and futile disputes about things the most sacred. Most of the English and the French would not consent to be thus trammelled, but treated both doctrinal and practical theology, freely, after the manner of the Arminians.

§ 9. As already observed in another place, William Ames, a Scotchman, was the first among the Reformed who attempted to elucidate and arrange the science of morals, as distinct from that of dogmatics. But he is dry, and writes more for the schools, than for common life. Afterwards the Arminians, (who, it appears, were much more zealous to perfect that part of theology which regulates the life and the heart, than that which informs the understanding,) induced great numbers, to attempt something more useful, and more popular, in this department. The French, however, and the English, excel the others in facility, acuteness, and solidity. Among the French, to mention no others, Moses Amyraut, a man of distinguished energy and acuteness of mind, first produced in French, though in a style now obsolete, a complete system of moral science; from which, those who have more recently obtained much reputation by their writings, John la Placette, and Benedict Pictet, appear to have profited not a little. Among the English during the immense convulsions of the civil wars, the Presbyterians especially, and the Independents, endeavoured by various works to subserve the cause of piety. Some of these (as the nation is naturally grave and inclined towards austerity,) are too rigorous, and regardless of man's condition; while others manifestly incline towards the precepts of the mystics. When Hobbes subjected all religion to the sovereign will of princes, and laboured to subvert altogether the natural distinction between right and wrong, he roused up great and discerning men,

Cumberland, Sharrock, Cudworth, and others to lay open the primary sources of right and justice, and to purify them from misrepresentations; by which they contributed very much to the illustration and confirmation of christian holiness.

§ 10. At the beginning of the century, the school of Geneva was in such reputation, throughout the Reformed world, that nearly all resorted to it, who were not prevented by the narrowness of their worldly circumstances, from aspiring after the best education and the highest attainments in theological knowledge". Hence the opinions of Calvin and his pupils, respecting the divine decrees and grace, readily spread every where, and were introduced into all the schools. Yet there was no where any public ordinance or test, which compelled the religious teachers not to believe or to teach differently from the Genevans'. Of course there were many persons living here and there, who either disagreed altogether with the Genevans", or qualified in some measure their doctrine. And even those

who took the side of the Genevans had some dissension among themselves. For while most of them supposed, that God only permitted the first man to sin, but did not decree his apostacy,

[See Leland's View of Deistical Writers, vol. i. p. 48. Macl.]

The high reputation which the Genevan academy once had, gradually declined, after the establishment of the Dutch republic, and the erection of the universities of Leyden, Franeker, and Utrecht.

7 Besides Hugo Grotius, who evinces this, in his Apologeticum, already mentioned, see Theodore Volckh. Coornhart, a Hollander, well known by the controversies he produced, in his Dutch tracts written near the close of the [preceding] century, in which he assails the doctrine of absolute decrees. I have now before me, his : Dolinghen des Catechismi ende der Predicanten, Utrecht, 1590. 8vo. Van de tolatinghe ende decrete Godes Bedenkinghe, of de Heylighe Schrift als Johan Calvin ende Beza daerran leeren, Altena, 1572. 8vo. Orsacken ende middelen van der Menschen saligheid ende Verdoemenisse, 1603. 8vo. Of this man, Godf. Arnold, treats, in the second vol. of his Kirchen- und Ketzer-historie, in

several places. [Especially, pt. iii. ch. vi. vol. ii. p. 377, &c. ed. 1741. where his life and controversies are stated at length. Tr.-James Arminius, while a minister at Amsterdam, being directed by the Consistory to refute the writings of Coornhart, was converted to his doctrines, by the perusal of his writings, and therefore defended them against the Reformed. Schl.]

8 E. gr. Henry Bullinger, a famous divine at Zurich, who clearly declared in favour of universal grace. See Jo. Alphon. Turretin's Letter to W. Wake, abp. of Canterbury, in the Bibliothèque Germanique, tom. xiii. art. ii. p. 92, &c. and Herm. Hildebrand's Orthodoxa Declaratio Articulorum Trium, p. 295, &c. and even in Holland, at the establishment of the university of Leyden, John Holmann, a universalist, was appointed first professor of theology. See Gerhard Brandt's History of the Reformation in the Netherlands, book ix. and the Histoire Abrégée de la Réformation de Brandt, tom. i. p. 229, &c. Schl.]

others went farther, and were so daring as to maintain, that God from all eternity, in order to place his justice and his free goodness in the clearest light, had decreed the lamentable transgression of Adam; and had so disposed every thing, that our first parents could not avoid or escape the transgression. The latter were called Supralapsarians, in distinction from the former, who were called Infralapsarians.

§ 11. Disregarding the points in which they differed, as being of small moment, both laboured with united strength to put down those, who maintained, that God is most graciously disposed towards all mankind. Hence a great schism arose, soon after the commencement of the century, which never could be healed. James Arminius, professor of theology at Leyden, rejected the Genevan doctrines, and embraced the Lutheran doctrine concerning grace, which excludes no one absolutely from eternal salvation. He was joined by many persons in Holland, who were distinguished both for learning and the stations they filled. On the other hand, he was most strenuously opposed by Francis Gomarus, his colleague, and by the principal teachers in the universities. The rulers of the commonwealth recommended moderation; and supposed that both opinions might be taught in a free state, without injury to religion. After long altercation and violent contests, by order of Maurice, prince of Orange, this controversy was submitted to the judgment of the whole church, and discussed in a council held at Dort, in 1618. There were present in the council, besides the best theologians of Holland, representatives of the English, the Palatines, the Swiss, the Bremensians, and the Hessians. Before this tribunal the Arminians lost their cause, and were pronounced corrupters of the true religion; and those among the Genevans, who are called Infralapsarians, triumphed. The Supralapsarian party, indeed, had supporters and advocates, who were neither few nor inactive; but the moderation and gentleness especially of the English divines, prevented their doctrines from obtaining the sanction of the

["It was not by the authority of prince Maurice, but by that of the States-general, that the national synod was assembled at Dort. The States

were not, indeed, unanimous; three of the seven provinces protested against the holding of the synod, viz. Holland, Utrecht, and Overyssel." Mac.]