city, and to follow a pure and chaste piety; the latter placed the substance of religion in external rites and bodily exercises. Did any one hesitate to believe? Two irrefragable arguments were at hand; the authority of the church, and miracles; for the working of which in these times of ignorance, but a moderate share of dexterity was requisite. § 2. Few, either of the Greeks or Latins, applied themselves to the interpretation of the holy scriptures. There remain Home commentaries of Isichius of Jerusalem, on certain books of the Old Testament, and on the epistle to the Hebrews. Maximus composed sixty-five Questions on the holy scriptures, and some other works of like character. Julianus Pomerius showed his wish, and his inability, to reconcile passages of scripture between which there is apparent contradiction, and also to explain the prophecy of Nahum. Compared with these writers, the worst of modern interpreters are manifestly to be preferred. The Greeks, especially those who would be thought adepts in mystic theology, ran after fantastic allegories; as may be seen by the Questions of Maximus above mentioned. The Latins had too little self-confidence even to venture on such a course, and therefore only culled flowers from the works of Gregory and Augustine; as is manifest, among other works, from the Explanations of the Old and New Testament collected by Paterius from the works of Gregory the Great'. Thomas of Heraclea gave to the Syrians a new translation of the New Testament *. § 3. As among the Latins, philosophy was nearly extinct, and among the Greeks, only certain points of theology were brought under discussion, no one thought of reducing the doc saints. If ye do these things, ye may come with confidence, before the tribunal of the eternal God, in the day of judgment, and say: Give, Lord, for we have given." ["We see here a large and ample description of the character of a good christian, in which there is not the least mention of the love of God, resignation to his will, obedience to his laws, or justice, benerolence, and charity towards men; and in which the whole of religion is made to consist in coming often to the church, bringing offerings to the altar, lighting candles in consecrated places, and such like vain services." Macl.] 3 This useless performance has been usually printed with the works of Gregory the Great; and therefore the Benedictine monks inserted it in their recent and splendid edition of Gregory's Works, vol. iv. pt. ii. but with no advantage to the public. Jos. Sim. Asseman, Biblioth. Orient. Vatican. tom. ii. p. 93, 94. trines of religion to a regular system, and of stating them philosophically. Yet one Antiochus, a monk of Palestine, composed a short summary of religious doctrines, which he called The Pandect of the Holy Scriptures. But the rank and influence due to this author, may be inferred from the mournful verses subjoined to this work, in which the author deplores in sorrowful strains the loss of the wood of the [true] cross, which the Persians were said to have carried away. A more neat and judicious Latin summary of the theology of this age, has not come down to us, than that in Ildefonsus' book de Cognitione Baptismi, lately brought to light by Baluze ;—a work indeed which we do not need, but one that contains some valuable testimonies for truths which were afterwards discarded. Tajo, or Tago, bishop of Saragossa, compiled five Books of Sentences, which are a dry and insipid body of theoretical and practical divinity, taken from Gregory the Great, though Augustine is sometimes taxed for contributions: yet that age esteemed it an admirable performance, and deserving immortality. On certain parts of christianity, a few individuals employed their pens; as Maximus, who wrote on theology, and on the manifestation of the Son in the flesh, and likewise on the two natures in Christ; and Theodorus of Raithu, who wrote on the incarnation of Christ. But those acquainted with the character of that age, will easily conjecture what sort of doctors these were. § 4. The lamentable state of practical theology is manifest from every writer on the subject in this age. The best of them were Dorotheus, in his Ascetic Dissertations; Maximus and Aldhelm, in some tracts; Hesychius and Thalasius, in their Sentences; and a few others. But in these, how many and how great are the imperfections! how numerous the marks of See Baluze, Miscellanea, tom. vi. p. 1, &c. From this book, it clearly appears, among other things, that the doctrine of transubstantiation, as it is called, was unknown to the Latins in the seventh century, (ch. 137. p. 99.) --that the sacred volume was read by all christians, (ch. 80. p. 59.)—and Ilde other facts of the like nature. and reason as authorities in religion; and teaches that there are two sources of theology, namely the holy scriptures, and the writings of the ancient doctors, or as he expresses himself (p. 14. 22,) dicinc institutionis auctoritatem, et sacræ paternitatis antiquitatem. See Jo. Mabillon, Analecta Veteris Eri, tom. ii. p. 68, &c. superstition! what constant indications of a mind vacillating and unable to grasp the subject! The laity, as they were called, had no cause to tax their teachers with excessive severity. For it was customary to confine the obligations of men to a very few virtues; as is manifest from Aldhelm's tract on the eight principal vices. And those who neglected these duties, were to incur no very formidable punishment for their offences. A life of solitude, as practised by the monks, though adorned by no marks of true piety, was esteemed sufficient of itself to atone for all kinds of guilt; and it was therefore called, by the Latins, a second Baptism'. This one fact is sufficient to show, how little the precepts of Christ were understood in this age. Among the swarms of Greek and oriental monks, very many laboured to attain perfection, by means of contemplation; and these endeavoured to transfuse into their very natures the spirit of Dionysius, that father of the mystics. $5. Theodorus the Cilician, a Grecian monk, restored among the Latins the discipline of penance, as it is called, which had fallen into neglect, and enforced it by strict rules, borrowed from the Grecian ecclesiastical jurisprudence. This man, being unexpectedly raised to the see of Canterbury in England, A. D. 668, among many other laudable deeds, reduced to a regular system, that part of ecclesiastical law which is called disciplina pænitentiaria. For, by publishing his Penitential, a work of which kind the Latin world had never before seen, he taught the priests to discriminate between more heinous and lighter sins, and between such as were secret and such as were open, and likewise to measure and to estimate them according to the circumstances of time, place, the character and disposition of the sinner, his sorrow, &c.; and pointed out the punishment due to the several kinds of sins and faults, the proper modes of consoling, admonishing, and absolving, and, in short, marked out the whole duty of those who hear con 7 [See Harduin's Concilia, tom. iii. p. 1771, where, in the Capitula of Theodore of Canterbury, we read: At the ordination of monks, the abbot ought to say mass, and utter three prayers over his head; and the monk should veil his head with a cowl seven days; and on the seventh day the abbot should remove the veil from the monk's head. As in baptism the presbyter removes the infant's veil on the seventh day, so should the abbot do to the monk: for it is a second Baptism, according to the decision of the fathers; and all sins are forgiven, as in Baptism. Schl.] fessions. This new discipline of penance, though it was of Grecian origin, was very acceptable to the Latins; and, in a short time, it was diffused from Britain over the whole Latin world, and enforced by Penitentials drawn up after the pattern of the original one by Theodorus. Yet it gradually declined again, in the eighth century, and by the new system of what are called indulgences, was at length wholly subverted. § 6. Those who wrote against the religious sects that departed from the common faith, are scarcely worthy of being named; and they would not be worth reading, were it not that they serve to elucidate the history of their times. Against the pagans, Nicias composed two books; and Photius mentions a person unknown to us, who he says contended against them, with a great array of arguments drawn from the fathers'. Against the Jews contended Julianus Pomerius. All the heresies are described and assailed, in the little work of Timotheus, on the Reception of Heretics. Of the theological contests among the orthodox themselves, little can be said. In this age were scattered the seeds of those grievous contests which afterwards severed the Greeks from the Latins; nor were they merely scattered, but likewise took root in the minds of the Greeks, to whom the Roman domination appeared altogether insufferable. In Britain, the ancient christians of that country contended with the new or Romish christians; that is, of the Saxon race, whom Augustine converted to Christ. They contended respecting various things; as baptism, and the tonsure, but especially about the time for the celebration of the feast of Easter 2. But these controversies did not relate to religion itself; and they were settled and determined, in the eighth century, by the Benedictine monks, and in accordance with the views of the Romans". The Penitential of Theodorus is still extant, though mutilated; published by Ja. Petit, Paris, 1679. 4to. with learned Dissertations and notes. We have also the one hundred and twenty Capitula Ecclesiastica of the same Theodorus, in Dachier, Spicilegium, tom. ix. Harduin, Concilia, tom. iii. p. 1771, and elsewhere. [Of this man, nothing more is known, than that he was a monk, and that he wrote a book against the seven VOL. II. chapters of Philoponus. Schl.] 1 Photius, Biblioth. Codex clxx. p.379. 2 Cummanus' Epistle, in Ja. Usher's Sylloge Epistolar. Hibernicar. p. 23, &c. Beda, Historia Eccles. Gentis Anglor. lib. iii. c. 25. Dav. Wilkins, Concilia Magna Britann. tom. i. p. 37. 42. Acta Sanctor. Februarii, tom. iii. p. 21. 84. [See also Dr. Warner's Ecclesiastical Hist. of England, book ii. and iii. Macl.] 3 Jo. Mabillon, Præf. ad Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bened. tom. iii. p. ii. &c. H CHAPTER IV. HISTORY OF RITES AND CEREMONIES. § 1. Rites multiplied.-§ 2. Some examples. § 1. THE Greeks, in the council which is called Quinisextum, made various enactments respecting religious rites and forms of worship, in which there were several deviations from the Roman usage. These canons were publicly received in all the churches within the territories of the Greek emperors; and likewise by all churches which accorded in doctrine and worship with the Greeks, though situated in the dominions of barbarian kings'. Nearly all the Roman pontiffs likewise added something new to the ancient ceremonies; as if they had supposed, that no one could teach christianity with success, unless he could delight a christian assembly with rare shows and mummery. These rites and usages were, in the time of Charlemagne, propagated from Rome among the other Latin churches; for the arrogance of the pontiffs would not suffer them to deviate from the Roman usage. § 2. A few specimens may serve for examples. The number of festivals, which was already oppressively great, was increased by the addition of a day consecrated to the wood of the cross on which the Saviour hung'; and another to the 1 [This council was held at Constantinople, a. D. 692, and was composed chiefly of oriental bishops, of whom more than 200 were assembled. The place of the sessions was a hall in the imperial palace, called Trullus; whence the council was denominated Concilium Trullanum, and Concilium in Trullo. It was properly the seventh General council, and supplied canons for the church, which the fifth and sixth had neglected to make. Being thus a kind of supplement to the fifth and sixth general councils, it was called Concilium Quinisextum. See chap. v. § 12. below. Tr.] 2 This festival was instituted by the emperor Heraclius, in the year 631, after he had vanquished the Persians and recovered from them the real cross, which Cosroes their king had carried off fourteen years before. The festival was established by pope Honorius; and was introduced into the West in this century. For the Roman pontiffs were then under the dominion of the Greek emperors, and were be |