and Waldenses were very averse,*—may not be improper.

The indignation of Europe having been excited, by Peter the Hermit's representation of the insults and vexations experienced by the pilgrims to the holy sepulchre, a crusade was resolved on at the council of Clermont, A. D. 1095.

The leaders of the first crusade, consisting of 800,000 men, were, Godfrey of Bouillon, who, with his brother Baldwin, commanded 80,000 troops; Hugh Count of Vermandois, brother to the King of France; Robert Duke of Normandy, son of William the Conqueror; Robert Count of Flanders, Stephen Count of Chartres, Raymond Count of Thoulouse;† Bohemond Duke of Apulia, son of Robert Guiscard, and his cousin Tancred, the Pride of Chivalry; and Peter the Hermit, who led on an undisciplined multitude, the greater part of whom, on account of the excesses they committed in passing through Hungary and Turcomania, were at

The reasons urged by the Albigenses and Waldenses against the crusades occasioned the publication of Francis Moneta's "Summa contra Catharos et Waldenses."-See Mosheim's Eccl. Hist. vol. ii. 448.

† Ancestor to Raymond who protected the Albigenses.

tacked, and mostly put to death. The remainder were defeated by Soliman. The disciplined troops were more successful. Antioch was taken and given to Bohemond, Edessa to Baldwyn, Jerusalem to Godfrey. The prosperity of the new kingdom of Jerusalem was, however, but of a transitory nature; for the Saracens having renewed the war, pathetic appeals were made to the pope, and to the European princes for their aid. Bernard the Abbot of Clairval, accordingly, exerted all his zeal and eloquence to summon a fresh army of crossbearing warriors. Louis VII. of France, and Conrad III. of Germany, listened to his solicitations, and each, at the head of a numerous army, set out for Palestine in the year 1147. After enduring various calamities; famine, shipwreck, and the sword; the wretched survivors of these armies arrived at Jerusalem; but the year following marched back to Europe. Deprived in consequence of the expected succours, and divided, as were the Christian chiefs in Palestine, by intestine feuds, the Sultan of Egypt, Saladin, attacked the Christian forces, and at the battle of Tiberias took Guy King of Jerusalem prisoner.

To relieve the Christians, thus reduced to the last extremity, a third crusade was un

dertaken by the Emperor of Germany, Frederic Barbarossa, in 1189, and by Philip Augustus King of France, and Richard I. King of England, in 1190. In the midst of conquests achieved by his valour, and that of an immense army, Frederic Barbarossa lost his life in the river Saleph or Cydnus, in Seleucia. His son Frederic, and the greatest part of the army, perished through the prevalence of a pestilential disorder in the camp. The King of France returned to Europe in 1191; and Richard, after having with great military prowess and skill defeated Saladin in many battles, and regained Jaffa and Cæsarea, concluded a truce with the sultan, and left Palestine in 1192.

Innocent III. summoned the princes of Europe to renew the crusades, but the French nobles who first listened to his exhortations, instead of steering for Palestine, sailed in 1203 for Constantinople, took that city by storm, and restored the Emperor Isaac Angelus to the throne; and when that emperor was afterwards put to death, these crusaders took Constantinople a second time, and established an empire of the Latins or Franks that lasted till 1261.

A crusade was regularly undertaken, however, in 1217, by Andrew King of Hungary, Leopold Duke of Austria, Lewis of Bavaria, and other princes. After the conquest and loss

of Damietta in 1220, this expedition failed, the fleet being destroyed by that of the Saracens.

In the year 1228, Frederic II. notwithstanding the persuasion and menaces of Pope Gregory IX. sailed reluctantly for Palestine, where he was acknowledged and crowned King of Jerusalem, and having concluded a truce of ten years with the Sultan of Egypt, returned to Europe.

Two expeditions were undertaken in the year 1239; the one by Theobald King of Navarre, the other by Richard brother to Henry III. King of England; neither of which led to important results, as a truce was concluded with the Mahometans.

This series of disastrous expeditions was closed by two crusades, undertaken in consequence of a vow by Louis IX. of France. In the first he took Damietta; but the army of this valiant monarch, previously reduced by famine and pestilence, was overcome by the Saracens ; he was himself taken prisoner, and ransomed at a sum equivalent to £190,000 sterling; whilst of 2800 knights who accompanied Louis, about 100 only returned to France. In the second expedition he attacked Carthage, but fell a victim to a pestilential disease that carried off the greatest of his army in the port of Tunis, A. D. 1270.

In 1291, Acre having been taken by the Mahometans, the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem was overthrown, and the Tragedy of the Crusades, characterized by ferocity and fanaticism during a period of 200 years, brought to a close.

P. 57. "Qu'ils rejetent le culte des images défendues dans la loi."-The children of the Vaudois are still carefully instructed to reject the worship of images because forbidden in the law. Their neighbours, however, the children of the Roman catholics, are, by episcopal authority, excluded from the true knowledge of God's law against images: for in the "Catechismo ad uso della Diocesi di Pinerolo," dated 1818, with a preface by the Bishop of Pinerolo (Francesco Maria Bigex) GOD's second commandment against images is omitted; a falsehood is told to the children, namely, that the second commandment is "non pigliare il nome di Dio in vano;" and ten commandments are formed by making two commandments of the tenth. St. Paul foretold that falsehood would characterize an apostasy from primitive Christianity; (1 Tim. chap. iv. 2); and St. John has forewarned all of the punishment for taking away any part of the inspired volume (Rev. ch. xxii. 19)

P. 58. "Montfort, Gastaldo, Albertus de Capitaneis."-Simon Count de Montfort, was