in affairs of such moment by superficial, halflearned, and interested declamation.

SECT. IV. Of the order of precedence to be observed in Councils; and of the right of attending, discussing, and subscribing.

1. In the African councils, next after the me tropolitan followed the oldest Bishops, that is those the dates of whose consecrations were most remote. In other countries, as in Ireland, the order of precedence was attached to the See.In the Eastern councils those Priests and Deacons, who attended as proxies for absent Bishops, had the same rank with the Bishops whom they represented. This is evident from the subscriptions of two general councils held at Nice, two general of Constantinople, from those of Ephe sus, and Chalcedon, and several others which af ford incontestible evidence of this fact.

In the Western Churches those Priests and Deacons, who were deputed proxies for Bishops, signed in a distinct column, different from that of the rank of Bishops, as in the Council of Arles, and in others. In the council of Pisa 1409, the Cardinals sat on the highest seats, on

the right of the entrance to the choir of the cathedral; the Bishops and Abbots on both sides of the Nave; the deputies of Chapters and Monasteries under them; the Ambassadors who were not Bishops sat with the Doctors in the Parterre. This is also the order which Campegius followed. In a general council he assigns the first place to the Pope, or to his Legates, as presiding absente Papa; then come Patriarchs, Primates, Archbishops, Bishops, Abbots, Generals of religious orders, and Deputies of chapters.The President's seat was the highest; Ambassa dors had separate places distinguished according to the rank of their Princes; Cardinals, Archbishops, and Bishops occupied the first rank of benches in a circle; next after and behind them was the Corona Presbyterii, or the second order of the Clergy.*-In the midst of this circle was an elevated throne on which was placed a copy of the four Evangelists. The fathers of Chalcedon placed on the same throne the book of Canons, to show that their decisions should accord with Canonical strictness, and the venerable usages of antiquity.

* «Et corona facta de sedibus Episcoporum, Presbyteri a "tergo eorum sedeant, diacones vero in conspectu Episcopo"rum stent." Concil. Tolet. 4, c. iv.

The manner of proceeding is regulated by the fourth Canon of the council of Toledo, in 633.* The Church was cleared early on the morning of the day of meeting, and locked.-When opened, the Bishops entered first, next the Priests, then the Deacons, then the Notaries who were to draw up the acts of each session. The Bishops sat in the first circle, the Priests in the second, the Deacons stood-.After enjoining silence, an Archdeacon notified the opening of the session by prayer; then the whole assembly prostrated themselves before the great altar, reciting the invocation of the Holy Ghost, "Veni Creator Spiritus."-Then a Deacon read a lesson from the gospel, and the Metropolitan, or President, or a Preacher, specially chosen by them, exhorted the assembly to fear God, and not to swerve from truth to the right or to the left. When the discussions terminated, all who were present, Bishops, Priests, and Deacons, signed the decision, and the whole concluded with a prayer for the union of all parties in one fold.Were these Synods secret? were they exclusive? 2. Before the council of Constance the votes

* The author of the Traité de l'etude des Conciles justly observes, that this Canon is much more ancient, and that the council of Toledo only re-enacted it." Il ne faut pas douter

qu'elle ne vient d'une tradition fort ancienne." Ib. P. 568.

were numbered; but the Italians being more numerous in that council, so as to exceed all the others, it was agreed, that those who had the right of suffrage should be divided into the five nations of which that assembly was composed, Italy, France, Germany, England, and Spain; that the matters to be examined should be examined and defined by plurality of voices of each nation, and by the Cardinals in their own College; and that when so defined by each nation separately, they should be reported as so defined to the whole council.-In the council of Basle, all those who had right of suffrage were divided into four classes, or deputations, of equal numbers each, having an equal number of each order and of each nation. Each deputation had a Presi dent, a Lawyer, and subordinate officers; each assembled three times a week, and deliberated on the object for which they assembled. -Each had three deputies who assembled to examine and prepare the matters which were to be discussed; and these sent the articles so prepared to the deputations to which the matters in discussion particularly belonged. One of those deputations had to discuss articles of faith; another, articles relating to the peace of Europe; a third, reformation of discipline; and a fourth, related to the

common occurrences which were to be regulated by new laws. When any one of those deputations had, by plurality of voices, decided on any question, that decision was referred to the three others, and if it was approved by all, or at least by three out of four, it was then referred to the general congregation, where the President, council adhering to the plurality of suffrages, concluded, that it was the decision of the council, and then it was solemnly published as such, in a session held in the cathedral of Basle.-He must be a boy in Church History who is ignorant of this.

3. When the council of Ferrara was opened, a question was proposed, whether the fathers should proceed by deputations or by national votes; for it would have been impossible to come to any determination if each should individually give his suffrage in the general assembly. It was resolved, that the council should be divided into three orders, the first composed of Cardinals, Archbishops, and Bishops; the second, of Abbots and other heads and professors of the regular orders; the third, of secular Priests, Doctors, Dignitaries of cathedrals, Graduates in theology, and in civil and canon law. If any two of these three orders agreed, the article so agreed to was to pass for a decision.