own wildest vagaries for the Word of the living God, and the way was thus opened up for the rushing in of tl at flood of erroneous doctrines and useless ceremonies, which for centuries afterwards threatened to overwhelm the Church of Christ, and effectually to uproot the vine of Jehovah's own planting. See ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL.

AMMONITES (RELIGION OF THE). The Ammonites were an ancient nation, descended from Ammon, the son of Lot. They inhabited a region forming a portion of Arabia Petræa, having destroyed the former inhabitants, who were a gigantic race, called the Zamzummims. The religion of this people was in all probability pure in its origin, being derived from the instructions of Lot, who was a faithful worship-| per of the true God. By degrees, however, they swerved from the worship of the true God into that of idols. Their principal deity was MOLOCH (which see), in honour of whom they are described in Scripture as having "made their children pass through the fire," an expression which has been differently interpreted by Christian and Jewish writers; the former viewing it as literal, the latter as metaphori- | cal. There was a place near Jerusalem where this horrid rite is said to have been observed. It bore the name of "the valley of the sons of Hinnom," and is said to have been so called from the shrieks of the children sacrificed by their own parents to the grim idol. It is now called Wadi Jehennam or the Valley of Hell.

AMORITES (RELIGION of the). The Amorites were a people descended from Amor, the fourth son of Canaan. They first peopled the country west of the Dead sea, and they had also possessions east of that sea, from which they had driven the Ammonites and Moabites. The name Amorites is often used in Scripture to denote the Canaanites in general. They are described by the prophet Amos as being of gigantic stature. It is probable that they were early acquainted with the true religion, but that the worship of idols being introduced from Chaldea and Persia, was embraced by them. Worshipping at first the sun and moon and the other heavenly bodies, they passed on to other forms of idolatry, until, not liking to retain the true God in their knowledge, "they changed the glory of the incorruptible God into an image made like to corruptible man, and to birds, and four-footed beasts, and creeping things." Their morals became as corrupt as their doctrines, and, in common with the other idolaters of Canaan, they were given over by God into the hands of the Israelites, who were commanded, as instruments of vengeance in the hands of the Almighty, to smite and utterly destroy them.

AMORAJIM (Heb. commentators), a class of doctors among the modern Jews, who directed their whole attention to the explanation of the Mishna or Book of Traditions, which had been collected and compiled by Rabbi Judah, commonly called Hakkadosh, the Holy. The Jerusalem Talmud had been prepared as a commentary upon the Mishna, but it was objected to by many Jews as containing only the opinion of a small number of doctors. Besides, it was written in a very barbarous dialect, which was spoken in Judea, and corrupted by the mixture of strange nations. Accordingly, the Amorajim arose, who began a new exposition of the Traditions. Rabbi Asa or Asha undertook this work, who taught a school at Sora, near Babylon, where, after he had taught forty years, he produced his Commentary upon Judah's Mishna. He did not live to finish it, but his sons and scholars brought it to completion. This is called the Gemara or the Talmud of Babylon, which is generally preferred to the Talmud of Jerusalem. It is a large and extensive work, containing the Traditions, the Canons of the Law of the Jews, and all the Questions relating to the Law. In these two Talinuds, the Jerusalem and the Babylonian, to the exclusion of the Law and the Prophets, are contained the whole of the Jewish religion, as it is now professed by the Jews. See TALMUD-MISHNA.

slept upon it, expecting a fulfilment of what they had asked from the oracle. Plutarch relates a story of a servant having been despatched in the time of Xerxes to consult the oracle of Amphiaraus con. cerning Mardonius. This servant being asleep in the temple, dreamed that an officer of the temple reproached him, and beat him, and at last threw a stone at him, because he would not go out; and it happened afterwards that Mardonius was slain by the lieutenant of the king of Lacedemon, having received a blow on his head by a stone which killed him. This coincidence Plutarch notes as a remarkable instance of the predictive power of the oracle. AMPHIBALUM. See CHASIBLE.

AMPHICTYONIS, a surname of Demeter, given to her as being worshipped at Anthela, where the Amphictyons of Thermopyla met, and because sacrifices were offered to her at the opening of every meeting.

AMPHIDROMIA, a religious feast of the ancient Pagans, solemnized on the fifth day after the birth of a child, when the midwife and all the attendants ran round the hearth carrying the child, and by that means entering it, as it were, into the family. On that joyful occasion, the parents and friends of the infant gave small presents to the women, and made a feast for them.

AMPHIETES, or AMPHIETERUS, a surname of Dionysus, in whose honour festivals were held

annually at Athens, and every three years at Thebes.

AMPHILOCHUS, a son of AMPHIARAUS (which see), and, like his father, a prophet or seer among the ancient Greeks. He was worshipped along with his father at Oropus. He had an oracle at Mallos in Cilicia, and Plutarch tells a story of one Thesbacius, who was informed by response from the oracle, that he should reform after his death, which, strange to say, happened as had been predicted, for Thesbacius having been killed, came to life three days after, and became a new man. Pausanias says that the oracle of Amphilochus was more to be credited than any other. See ORACLES.

AMPHITHURA (Gr. folding doors), a name given by Chrysostom and Evagrius to the veils or hangings which in the ancient Christian churches divided the chancel from the rest of the church. They received this name from their opening in the middle like folding doors. They were sometimes richly adorned with gold. The use of them was partly to hide the altar part of the church from the catechumens and unbelievers, and partly to cover the sacrifice of the eucharist in the time of consecration, as we learn from these words of Chrysostom, quoted by Bingham: "When the sacrifice is brought forth, when Christ the Lamb of God is offered, when you hear this signal given, let us all join in common prayer; when you see the veils withdrawn, then think you see heaven opened, and the angels descending from above." See Beмa.

AMPHITRITE, the wife of Poseidon, in ancient Greek mythology, and the goddess of the sea. Homer sometimes uses the word to denote the sea. A figure of her is often seen on coins of Syracuse, and a colossal statue of her is still to be seen in the Villa Albani.

AMPLIAS (FESTIVAL OF). This festival in the Greek calendar is observed on the 31st October, in honour of Amplias, who is mentioned Rom. xvi. 8, as one whom Paul particularly loved.

AMSCHASPANDS, the seven Archangels in the system of the ancient Persians.

on

AMSDORFSIANS, the followers of Nicholas Amsdorf, a Lutheran divine of the sixteenth century. He was bishop of Naumburg in Saxony. At the commencement of the Reformation in Germany, he attached himself to Luther, accompanying him to the diet of Worms, and was with him when the Reformer was seized by the elector of Saxony and conducted to Magdeburg. He wrote several theological subjects, and being a strong supporter of the doctrine of justification by faith alone, he was openly charged, like all the other SOLIFIDIANS (which see), with a wild and extravagant Antinomianism. He has been absurdly represented as maintaining that good works are not only unprofitable, but an actual impediment to salvation. Major, who inclined somewhat to the opinion that we are justified on the ground of personal merit,

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carried on a controversy for some time with Amsdorf on the subject; but finding that both parties were proceeding on a misunderstanding of one another's real opinions, it was discontinued.

AMULETS, charms against mischief, witchcraft, or diseases. These seem to have been in use from very early times. The ear-rings which Jacob (Gen. xxxv. 2-4) obliged his people to deliver up to him. were probably used as instruments of superstition, and, accordingly, to put an end to such charms, he buried them under an oak near Shechem. The frequent allusions in the law also to binding the words of the law as a sign upon their hands, and as frontlets between their eyes, evidently refer to the previous use of talismans and amulets, which were worn in the manner here alluded to. Medical practice among the ancient Jews chiefly consisted of the use of amulets. And even still, the Jews are a remarkably superstitious people, converting the whole arrangements of the law, their phylac teries, their mezuzzoth, their dresses, and whole ceremonies into a system of charms or amulets, in whose talismanic power they put implicit confidence. Some Jews wear an amulet consisting of a small piece of parchment, with a few cabbalistic words written upon it by one of their Rabbis. Some have a bulb of garlic hanging about them tied up in a linen rag; and others carry a small piece of their passovercake in their pocket. Many who carry none of these amulets on their person, never forget to cover their forehead when they are apprehensive of any danger of an evil eye, in consequence of any person looking at them too steadily for a long time.

Among all the oriental nations, amulets composed of metal, wood, stone, shells, gems, coral, and, in short, any thing that a superstitious imagination could invent, have been in use from the earliest ages. The ancient Greeks and Romans, also, were much addicted to the use of amulets. Eustathius tells us that the famous goddess Diana, whose image was worshipped at Ephesus, rendered that city notorious, not only for its idolatry, but for the practice of magic. "The mysterious symbols," he says, "called Ephesian letters,' were engraved on the crown, the feet, and the girdle of the goddess. These letters, when pronounced, were regarded as a charm, and were directed to be used especially by those who were in the power of evil spirits. When written, they were carried about as amulets." Curious stories are told of their influence. Croesus is related to have repeated the mystic syllables when on his funeral pile; and an Ephesian wrestler is said to have always struggled successfully against an antagonist from Miletus, until he lost the scroll, which before had been like a talisman. The study of these symbols was an elaborate science, and books, both numerous and costly, were compiled by its professors.

From the early Christian writers it is plain that amulets must have been used to some extent, evcu by Christians themselves. On this subject Bingham,

in his 'Antiquities of the Christian Church,' makes some very judicious remarks as to the origin of this practice among the primitive Christians, and the extent to which it prevailed. We gladly quote the passage, as illustrative of our present subject.

"Constantine had allowed the heathen, in the beginning of his reformation, for some time, not only to consult their augurs in public, but also to use charms by way of remedy for bodily distempers, and to prevent storms of rain and hail from injuring the ripe fruits, as appears from that very law, where he condemns the other sort of magic, that tended to do mischief, to be punished with death. And probably from this indulgence granted to the heathen, many Christians, who brought a tincture of heathenism with them into their religion, might take occasion to think there was no great harm in such charms or enchantments, when the design was only to do good and not evil. However it was, this is certain in fact, that many Christians were much inclined to this practice, and therefore made use of charms and amulets, which they called periammata and phylacteria, pendants and preservatives to secure themselves from danger, and drive away bodily distempers. These phylacteries, as they called them, were a sort of amulets made of ribands, with a text of Scripture or some other charm of words written in them, which they imagined without any natural means to be effectual remedies or preservatives against diseases. Therefore the church, to root out this superstition out of men's minds, was forced to make severe laws against it. The council of Laodicea condemns clergymen that pretended to make such phylacteries, which were rather to be called bonds and fetters for their own souls, and orders all such as wore them to be cast out of the church. St. Chrysostom often mentions them with some indignation: upon those words of the Psalmist, I will rejoice in thy salvation,' he says, We ought not simply to desire to be saved, and delivered from evil by any means whatever, but only by God. And this I say upon the account of those who use enchantments in diseases, and seek to relieve their infirmities by other impostures. For this is not salvation, but destruction. In another place dissuading Christians from running to the Jews, who pretended to cure diseases by such methods, he tells them that Christians are to obey Christ, and not to fly to his enemies: though they pretend to make cures, and promise you a remedy to invite you to them, choose rather to discover their impostures, their enchantments, their amulets, their witchcraft; for they pretend to work cures no other way; neither indeed do they work them truly at all, God forbid. But I will say one thing further, although they did work true cures, it were better to die than to go to the enemies of Christ, and be cured after that manner. For what profit is it to have the body cured with the loss of our soul? What advantage, what comfort shall we get thereby, when we must shortly be sent into everlasting fire?

He

there proposes the example of Job, and Lazarus, and the infirm man who had waited at the pool of Bethesda thirty and eight years, who never betook themselves to any diviner, or enchanter, or juggler, or impostor; they tied no amulets nor plates to their bodies, but expected their help only from the Lord; and Lazarus chose rather to die in his sickness and sores, than betray his religion in any wise, by having recourse to those forbidden arts for cure. This he reckons a sort of martyrdom, when men choose rather to die, or suffer their children to die, than make use of amulets and charms; for though they do not sacrifice their bodies with their own hands, as Abraham did his son, yet they offer a mental sacrifice to God. On the contrary, he says, the use of amulets was idolatry, though they that made a gain by it offered a thousand philosophical arguments to defend it, saying, We only pray to God, and do nothing more; and, the old woman that made them was a Christian and a believer; with other such like excuses. If thou art a believer, sign thyself with the sign of the cross: say, This is my armour, this my medicament; besides this I know no other. Suppose a physician should come, and, instead of medicines belonging to his art, should use enchantment only; would you call him a physician? No, in no wise; because we see not medicines proper to his calling so neither are your medicines proper to the calling of a Christian. He adds, That some women put the names of rivers into their charms; and others ashes, and soot, and salt, crying out, That the child was taken with an evil eye, and a thousand ridiculous things of the like nature, which exposed Christians to the scorn of the heathen, many of whom were wiser than to hearken to any such fond impostures. Upon the whole matter he tells them, That if he found any henceforward that made amulets or charms, or did any other thing belonging to this art, he would no longer spare them: meaning, that they should feel the severity of ecclesiastical censure for such offences. In other places he complains of women that made phylacteries of the Gospels to hang about their necks. And the like complaints are made by St. Basil, and Epiphanius. Which shows that this piece of superstition, of trying to cure diseases without physic, was deeply rooted in the hearts of many Christians."

In Oriental writers there are very frequent mention of amulets being worn as ornaments, particularly by females. They were often formed of gold and silver, and precious stones. Schroeder, in his curious and elaborate work, De Vestitu Mulierum Hebræarum, on the dress of Hebrew females, devotes an entire chapter to the amulet as an ornament customarily worn by Hebrew women. Lightfoot says that "there was no people in the whole world that more used or were more fond of amulets." The Mishna forbade the use of them on Sabbath, unless prescribed by some approved physician, that is, by a person who knew that at least three persons had

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AMYCLÆUS, a surname of Apollo, derived from Amycle in Laconia, where he was worshipped, a colossal statue in his honour having been erected in that place.

AMYRALDISTS, the followers of Moses Amyraut, or Amyraldus, a French Protestant divine of the seventeenth century. He studied at Saumur, where he was chosen Professor of Theology. Through him an attempt was made by Cardinal Richelieu to effect a union of the Protestants and Romanists. For this purpose a Jesuit named Audebert was commissioned to treat with Amyraut. The Jesuit stated that for the sake of peace the king and his minister were willing to give up the invocation of saints and angels, purgatory, and the merit of good works; that they would limit the power of the Pope; and if the court of Rome would consent to it, they would create a patriarch; that the cup should be allowed to the laity, and that some other changes might be made. Amyraut mentioned the eucharist. The Jesuit said no change in that was proposed. Amyraut instantly replied that nothing can be done. This ended the conference, which had lasted for four hours. Amyraut published a work on Predestination and Grace, which occasioned a keen controversy between him and some other divines. The doctrine which he maintained principally consisted of the following particulars: That God desires the happiness of all men, and none are excluded by a divine decree; that none can obtain salvation without faith in Christ; that God refuses to none the power of believing, though he does not grant to all his assistance that they may improve this power to saving purposes; and that many perish through their own fault. The name of Universalists was sometimes given to those who embraced these doctrines, though they evidently rendered grace universal in words only, but partial in reality.

ANABAPTISTS (Gr. ana, anew, and baptizo, to baptize), a Christian sect which arose in the sixteenth century, who maintained that those who have been baptized in their infancy ought to be baptized anew. The word is equivalent to BAPTISTS (which see), the name usually assumed by those who deny the validity of infant baptism. That large and respectable body of Christians, however, reject the appellation of Anabaptists, considering it a term of reproach. Re

limit the name Anabaptists to the sect which sprung up in Germany about the time of the Lutheran Reformation. " Upon any great revolution in religion," as Dr. Robertson well remarks in his History of Charles V., "irregularities abound most at that particular period when men, having thrown off the authority of their ancient principles, do not yet fully comprehend the nature, or feel the obligation of those new tenets which they have embraced. The mind in that situation, pushing forward with that boldness which prompted it to reject established opinions, and not guided by a clear knowledge of the system substituted in their place, disdains all restraint, and runs into wild notions, which often lead to scandalous or immoral conduct." The principle here enunciated goes far to account for the extravagant opinions which in the days of Luther were broached by Muncer, Storck, and other Anabaptists in Upper Germany, spreading from thence into the Netherlands and Westphalia.

The most remarkable tenet of the Anabaptists, and that which, as we have seen, gave origin to their name, had a reference to the sacrament of baptism, which they alleged ought to be administered to persons who had reached years of understanding, and should be performed not by sprinkling, but by immersion. Thus they condemned the baptism of infants, and insisted that all who had been baptized in infancy should be baptized anew. Adult baptism by immersion, however, was far from being the only or even the most important principle maintained by the Anabaptists. They taught doctrines subversive of the peace and good order of civil society. Of such a dangerous character and tendency undoubtedly was the idea which they openly maintained, that to Christians who have the precepts of the gospel, and the Spirit of God to direct them, the office of the magistracy is altogether unnecessary, and an encroachment besides on their spiritual liberty. The power exercised by the civil authorities was thus in their view an unwarranted usurpation, and ought to be resisted by every true Christian. In the same spirit of opposition to the wholesome regulations of civil society, the Anabaptists declared that all men are on an equality, and that the distinctions in rank, wealth, and birth, which obtain usually in communities, ought to be discountenanced and abolished; that Christians should throw their possessions into one common stock, and live in a state of complete equality as members of the same family. But carrying still farther their notions of the unbridled freedom which belongs to Christians under the gospel, they taught that neither the laws of nature nor the word of God had imposed any restraints upon men in regard to the number of wives which a man might marry.

Such opinions were fraught with no small danger in a social and political aspect, more especially at a

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time and in a country so remarkably under the influence of religious excitement. Nor did the Anabaptists content themselves with the maintenance simply of their peculiar religious tenets; they exerted themselves with the utmost energy and zeal to gain proselytes to their cause. Two individuals particularly, John Matthias, a baker of Haerlem, and John Boccold, a journeyman tailor of Leyden, fired with enthusiastic devotion to the Anabaptist principles, assumed to theinselves the leadership of the sect, and fixing their residence at Munster, an imperial city in Westphalia, they promulgated their doctrines with such plausibility and power, that they succeeded in attracting a large number of converts, and gathering boldness as they proceeded in their work, they took forcible possession of the arsenal and senate-house during the night, and running through the streets with drawn swords, they exclaimed, Repent, and be baptized," alternating this invitation with the solemn denunciation, "Depart, ye ungodly." The senators, nobles, and more peaceable citizens, both Protestants and Papists, fled in confusion, leaving the frantic enthusiasts in undisturbed possession of the town. Having thus entrenched themselves in Munster, a city of some importance, they made a pretence of establishing a government, electing senators, and appointing consuls of their own sect. The mainspring of the whole movement, however, was the baker Matthias, who, in the style and with the authority of a prophet, issued his commands which it was instant death to disobey. Urged on by this reckless fanatic, the mob proceeded to pillage the churches, deface their ornaments, and to destroy all books except the Bible. Matthias gave orders that the property of all who had left the city should be confiscated, and sold to the inhabitants of the adjacent country. He commanded his followers to bring all their silver, gold, and other valuables, and to lay them at his feet, and depositing in a common treasury the property thus accumulated, he appointed deacons to dispense it for the common advantage. He arranged that all should eat at a public table, while he himself appointed the dishes of which they were to partake.

The next point to which Matthias directed his attention was, the defence of the city from external invasion. For this purpose he collected large magazines of every kind, constructed fortifications, and trained his followers to arms. He sent emissaries to the Anabaptists in the Low Countries, inviting them to assemble at Munster, which he dignified with the name of Mount Sion, and from that city as a centrepoint, he proposed that they should set out for the subjugation of the whole earth. Meanwhile he animated his people by pretended revelations and prophecies, rousing their passions, and preparing them to undertake or suffer anything for the maintenance of their opinions.

mob without some effort being made for its recovery. The bishop of the town accordingly, having collected a large army, advanced to besiege it. The attempt, however, was unsuccessful; Matthias repulsed them. with great slaughter. Flushed with victory, he appeared next day brandishing a spear, and declaring that, like Gideon of old, with a handful of men he would put to flight a host of the enemies of God. Thirty of his followers accompanied him in this wild enterprise, and, as might have been expected, they were cut off to a man. The death of Matthias at first struck consternation into the minds of his disciples; but his associate, Boccold the tailor, assuming to be invested with the same divine commission, and to be possessed of the same prophetic powers, succeeded the deceased prophet in the leadership of the Anabaptist enthusiasts. The war, however, under this new commander, was now simply of a defensive character. Wanting the courage of Matthias, he excelled him in craft. To gratify his unbounded ambition, he resorted to measures of the most discreditable kind. Stripping himself naked, he marched through the streets of Munster, proclaiming with a loud voice, "That the kingdom of Sion was at hand; that whatever was highest on earth should be brought low, and whatever was lowest should be exalted." To substantiate his own prediction, he ordered the churches to be levelled with the ground, he degraded the senators chosen by Matthias, and reduced the consul to a common hangman, an arrangement to which the pusillanimous functionary tamely submitted. Presuming to exercise the same authority as that which was possessed by Moses the Jewish legislator, he substituted in place of the deposed senators, twelve judges according to the nunber of the twelve tribes of Israel.

John Boccold, or John of Leyden, as he is often termed, had now prepared the people for the crowning act of arrogance which they were about to witness. Summoning them together, he declared it to be the will of God that he should be king of Sion, and should sit on the throne of David. From that moment he assumed all the state and pomp of royalty. Wearing a crown of gold, and clothed in the richest and most sumptuous robes, he appeared in public with a Bible in one hand, and a sword in the other, while a large body-guard surrounded his person. He coined money stamped with his own image, and demanded homage of the humblest kind from all his subjects.