facture of bleaching liquors and powders. For this purpose a mixture of common salt and black oxide of manganese is put into a proper vessel, sulphuric acid is poured upon it, and heat is applied. The sulphuric acid decomposes the common salt, setting muriatic acid free, which acts upon the manganese, and chlorine, or oxymuriatic acid gas, as it used to be called, is produced, which is afterwards combined either with potash, or, what is more usual, with quick-lime in the dry state; and this last is the bleaching powder of Tennant, now universally consumed in bleaching establishments. The usual way in which chemists obtain oxygen gas is by heating the black oxide of maganese in an iron retort, and conveying the gas by a tube under the surface of water into jars. It is also extensively used in the manufacture of glass, in order to render it colourless.

Cobalt

Was discovered by Brandt, a German chemist, in 1733. It is never found pure. When obtained from the ore it is of a reddish-grey colour, without much lustre, has a specific gravity of 7.83; it is brittle at common temperatures, but, when redhot, may be partially extended under the hammer. It is fusible only in a very strong heat, nearly as high as that required to melt cast-iron. It is attracted by the magnet, and is capable of being rendered permanently magnetic.

The most common ores of this metal are its combinations with arsenic, sulphur, and iron: they occur in veins traversing the primary strata, and also in the rocks themselves. The chief supply of the metal is from Norway, Sweden, Bohemia, Silesia, and Saxony.

The sole use of this metal is in the state of an oxide, when it gives a blue colour to glass, porcelain, and other earthy mixtures. One grain of the pure oxide gives a very full blue to 240 grains of glass. When it is melted with vitrifiable materials, such as flints, and finely ground, it is called smalts, azure-blue, and powder-blue. In the manufacture of smalts, the ore is roasted in a furnace of a particular construction, having a horizontal chimney, sometimes 600 feet long, chiefly composed of wood. The purpose of this very long chimney is to condense the vapours of the arsenic contained in the ore, and prevent their escape into the atmosphere. The ore, being well calcined, is ground to a fine powder, mixed with two parts of powdered flints or quartz, and melted, and thus a blue glass is formed. This last, by repeated grindings and washings, is brought to the state of a very fine impalpable powder, and then it is fit for use. principal manufactures of smalts are in Norway, and at Schneeberg in Saxony.

The

The great consumption of smalts is to give a slight blue tint to white linen and cotton fabrics after they have undergone the process of bleaching. In the manufacture of paper the blue shade is given by this material.

Arsenic

Was first made known as a peculiar metal by Brandt, in

the year 1733. The pure metal is of a greyish-white colour, with a bright metallic lustre, but it speedily becomes black by exposure to the air. It has a specific gravity of 5.88, and is exceedingly brittle. When combined with other metals, it renders them brittle and immalleable. Its point of fusion has not been exactly ascertained, but when exposed to a heat of 365 degrees it is dissipated into vapour. If the operation be carried on in a close vessel, the metal is sublimed without change; but, when exposed to the air, it combines with oxygen, and is converted into a white powder, which is an oxide, with slightly-acid properties, and is the common arsenic of commerce, a deadly poison, and yet, in proper quantities, a useful medicine.

Arsenic is found in the native state, but the most common ores are those in which it is combined with other metals, especially with cobalt, iron, and silver. United with one proportion of sulphur, it forms the brilliant red mineral called realgar; with another proportion, the bright golden yellow substance called orpiment. In combination with a larger proportion of oxygen than the white oxide has, this metal forms a peculiar acid, called the arsenic acid; it is frequently combined with iron, lead, copper, earths, &c., forming beautiful minerals, called arseniates. All the ores are confined to the older rocks. The chief supply is from those parts of Norway, Sweden, and Saxony, where cobalt-ores are smelted.

What is commonly called arsenic, which is the white oxide, is composed of about 75 per cent. of arsenic and 25 of oxygen. provided with a conical head of the same metal, into which It is prepared by heating the ores in a strong cast-iron box, the fumes of the metal rise, combining with the oxygen of the air, and are condensed; and this first product is purified by a second sublimation of the same sort. The chief consumption of it is in the manufacture of glass. Metallic arsenic has no deleterious effect upon the human body.

Chromium

Was discovered by the French chemist Vauquelin, in an ore of lead from Siberia, in the year 1797, and he gave it that name from a Greek word (chroma), signifying colour: a single grain of some preparations gives a perceptible tint to three quarts of water. When obtained pure, it is a metal of a greyish-white colour, having a specific gravity of about 5.00, being extremely brittle, and very difficult of fusion. When united with oxygen it forms a peculiar acid, and combinations of this acid with lead and iron are the only forms in which the metal is found.

The only use of this metal is as a colouring body. The beautiful paint called chrome yellow is a compound of chromic acid and oxide of lead; and another preparation with lead produces a powder of a beautiful red colour, which, as well as the yellow, is a durable paint, and a valuable material in dyeing and calico-printing. Oxide of chromium tinges glass of a beautiful emerald-green colour.

Cattle. In its most extensive sense the word cattle denotes all the larger domestic quadrupeds, which are used for draught or food. In the usual acceptation of the word it is confined to the ox, or what is called black cattle or horned cattle. But as many varieties are not black, and several have no horns, the name of neat cattle is more appropriate. The rearing and feeding of cattle form a very important branch of agricultural industry. Much of the success of a farmer depends on the judicious management of live stock, without which his land cannot be maintained in a proper state of fertility. The breeding and fattening of cattle are generally distinct occupations. It is of the greatest importance to the breeder, as well as to the grazier, to ascertain the qualities of each breed of cattle; to determine which is best suited to his purpose, and which will bring him the greatest profit.

The domestic bull and cow are probably of Asiatic origin. In those countries where they are now found in a wild state, they are the descendants of domestic animals which have been let loose, or have strayed from the habitations of man. The Urus, which ranged wild in the Hercynian Forest, and was a dangerous enemy to those who encountered him, appears to have differed little from the common bull. If he was an indigenous wild animal, he was perhaps the original stock from which our different European varieties have sprung. This, however, is denied by naturalists, who consider him a distinct species. The small Hindoo ox, with a hump on the chine, and the African Cape ox, which is used for riding as well as draught, and has no hump, are both more nearly allied to the buffalo. They are very tame, and more intelligent than the generality of our oxen. Of the cattle on the Continent of Europe, one of the principal breeds is that of the Ukraine. The oxen of this breed are large and strong, and fatten readily in good pastures. Their flesh is succulent and well tasted; but the cows do not readily allow themselves to be milked, and consequently are not fit for the dairy. The colour is generally a light grey, seldom either black or white. They are docile when worked; but they are not considered so hardy and strong as the Hungarian oxen, which resemble them in colour, but are more compact, and have shorter limbs. The horns are large and spreading, which gives them a formidable appearance, and, compared with the more improved and carefully bred cattle, they are heavy and coarse. When they are stalled in winter on hay and roots, they bring a considerable profit by fattening very soon. They are driven in herds from the extensive plains in which they are bred, and sold to graziers in Germany.

In the plains of Jutland, Holstein, and Schleswig, there is a very fine breed, with small short crooked horns, which appears to be nearly allied to the Friesland and to our own Holderness breed. They are of various colours; but mouse or fawn colour, interspersed with white, is the most common. They are good milkers in moderate pastures, and the oxen fatten readily when grazed or stall-fed at a proper age. They are fine in the horn and bone, and wide in the loins; but they are not considered so hardy and strong for labour as the preceding breed. If prejudice did not make the breeders select the calves with large bone and coarse features to rear as bulls, in preference to those which resemble the cows, this breed would in every respect equal our best short horns. The cows are frequently fattened while still in milk, and are fit for the butcher by the time they are dry; the same system is followed by the great milkmen in the neighbourhood of London, with

No. 18.

their large Holderness cows. This breed is much esteemed in all the northern parts of Europe. The Friesland, Oldenburg, Danzig, and Tilsit cattle, are mostly varieties of this shorthorned breed.

Towards the Alps the cattle have a different character; they are strong and active, and can range wider in search of pasture. The largest and finest breed is the Swiss, especially the Freyburg race, which is found in the rich pastures between the mountains in the neighbourhood of Greyerz (Gruyères), a place well known for its excellent cheese. The cows, which are here the principal object of attention, are large and wide in the flanks, and strong in the horn-(we should rank them in England among the middle-horns)—short and strong in the bone, with a prominence at the root of the tail. They give abundance of rich milk when ranging in their native Alps, or when stalled or fed with clover or lucern in the stables. The oxen work well, but are rather heavy and slow. When fed off they fatten well; and although fat meat is not much prized there, some carcases may be seen slaughtered in Bern and Freyburg which are equal to those in the best English markets.

There is a smaller, but very active mountain breed of cattle in the Jura, which does well on scanty food. The cows are small and slight, and generally of a light red colour. The oxen are very active and strong for their size. They draw invariably by the horns. They are not considered so profitable for stall-feeding as the larger, but they are excellent for the small cottagers on the borders of the mountains, and find their sus tenance among the woods and rocks, where they climb like goats.

The Norman breed gives the character to all the cattle usually met with in the northern part of France, except near the Rhine. They are mostly of a light red colour, sometimes spotted with white. Their horns are short, and stand well out from the forehead, turning up with a black tip; the legs are fine and slender, the hips high, and the thighs thin. The cows are good milkers, and the milk is rich. They are in general extremely lean, which is owing in a great measure to the scanty food they gather by the sides of roads, and along the grass balks which divide the fields. In Normandy itself they have good pastures, and the cattle are larger and look better. The Alderney and Jersey breeds, which, from the extreme richness of their milk, are much prized in gentlemen's dairies in England, are smaller varieties of the Norman, with shorter horns, more turned in, and in a still more deer-like form.

The Italian breeds are not very remarkable, except from the immense length of the horns of some of them. No great pains are taken to improve them, except in some parts of the north of Italy, where the Parmesan cheese is manufactured: there they resemble the Swiss breed.

The different British and Irish breeds have been generally distinguished from each other by the length of the horn. The long-horned breed is supposed by many to be indigenous; others consider the middle-horned as the old breed. The former was chiefly found in a district of Yorkshire, called Craven, and was greatly improved by the skill of Robert Bakewell, of Dishley Farm, in Leicestershire, and hence they are called the Dishley breed. The distinguishing character of this breed is long horns growing downwards from the side of the head, and ending in straight points parallel to the jaw. In order to give an adequate idea of the qualities of this improved breed, we must consider what breeders and graziers

T

call the fine points of an ox. These are certain forms and appearances, which are either anatomically connected with a perfect conformation of the body, and especially of the organs of respiration and of digestion, or which are constantly associated with the peculiar qualities of certain breeds, so as to be proofs of their purity. Of the first kind are a wide chest, wellformed barrel, strong and straight spine, hip-bones well separated, and length of quarter, all which can be proved to be essential to the perfect functions of the body. Small and short bones in the legs give firmness without unnecessary weight. A thick skin, well covered with hair, insures proper warmth, and its soft loose feel indicates a good coat of cellular substance underneath, which will readily be filled with deposited fat. All these are indispensable points in an ox which is to be profitably fatted, and whatever be the breed, they will always indicate superiority. Other points, such as colour, form of the horns, shape of the jaw, and setting on of the tail, with other particulars, are only essential in so far as experience has observed them in the best breeds, and as they are indications of pure blood. The eye is of great importance; it should be lively and mild, indicating a healthy circulation, with a gentle and almost indolent temper. An animal that is not easily disturbed will fatten rapidly, while one that is restless and impatient will never acquire flesh. In some of our best breeds there is scarcely any dewlap. The rump of the Freyburg cows, as we observed before, rises high towards the tail; while a straight back from the neck to the tail is indispensable in a well-bred British ox.

When a breed is established, which has many superior qualities, the object is to maintain its purity; and to those who cannot ascertain the parentage, certain marks are satisfactory proof of purity of blood. The new Leicester long-horn oxen were noted for the smallness of the bone and their aptitude to fatten. Their flesh was fine-grained, the fat being well intermixed in the muscles. At the time when Bakewell died, about 1795, no other breed could be brought into competition with his improved long-horns. But whether his successors have not paid the same attention to keep up the qualities of the breed, or it has degenerated in comparison, they have since lost much of their reputation, and the short-horned breed has now the superiority. Good long-horned cattle are, however, occasionally seen in the midland counties. One defect of the breed was, that the cows gave little milk, and this may be the reason for now preferring the short-horns. The Teeswater or Holderness breed of cattle was produced by the importation of cows from Holstein or Holland, and careful breeding and crossing. They now much excel the original stock. The principal improver of the Teeswater breed was Mr. Charles Collins. By his care a breed has been produced which is unrivalled for the dairy, and for fattening readily. Almost every good breed now in existence traces its pedigree to his bulls, especially one of the first that he used, called Hubback. The famous ox exhibited 30 years ago, under the name of the Durham ox, was of this breed. By careful crossing with a Galloway cow, an improved breed was produced, which was in such repute that at a sale of Mr. Collins's stock of short-horns, October 11, 1810, a famous bull, called Comet, sold for 1000 guineas, and 48 lots of bulls, cows, and calves realized 71157. 17s. (Library of Useful Knowledge,' 'Cattle,' p. 233). The short-horn cattle are mostly light coloured, and some quite white, but most of them are speckled with red and white, without any large distinct spots. The horns are very short; and in the cow the points turn inwards towards each other. Some of the finest bulls have merely a tip of a horn standing out from each side of the forehead. In the carcase they have every point which is essential to perfection.

Besides the two breeds above mentioned, there are several in great repute in particular districts, which almost dispute the superiority with the short-horns. Of these the Devonshire breed is the handsomest. The colour of this breed is invariably red, with a very fine head, small bone, and glossy hide. The oxen, although not so heavy as some, are the best for the

plough on light lands; they walk nearly as fast as horses, and will work almost as well in pairs. The cows are good milkers, any deficiency in quantity being made up by the richness of the cream. The oxen fatten readily, and their flesh is of the best quality. The Sussex breed is only distinguished from the Devon by being rather stronger, and not so fine in the head and horn.

The Herefordshire breed is larger and heavier than either of the preceding, the horns longer and more turned outwards; the colour is red, but the belly and the face are generally white, and there is often a white stripe along the back. This breed has many excellent qualities, and fattens well; but the cows are of little use for the dairy, from the small quantity of milk which they yield. The Herefordshire oxen are best suited to the rich pastures of their native county, where they grow to a great size and increase fast. These are the principal English breeds. Of the Welsh breeds, the Glamorganshire cows are in good repute for the dairy; they are of a dark brown colour with a white stripe along the back, long white horns pointing rather forwards and upwards; the tail is set on rather high above the back, which is thought a defect. The other Welsh breeds are distinguished chiefly by their hardy constitution, which they owe to their having been bred in mountainous districts. Great droves of them come to all the English fairs; their low price and small expense of keep render them an object worthy the attention of cottagers and small farmers; they are best calculated to run on rough heaths and commons.

The principal indigenous Scotch breeds are the West Highland, the Galloway, the Angus, and the Shetland. There is a doubt whether the Ayrshire should be classed among the pure Scotch cattle. Their great resemblance to the short-horn in all except the size leads one to suppose that they are a cross of a smaller breed by a short-horn bull, but they have very good qualities, and are excellent for the dairy or for stalling.

A great many cattle are bred in the islands on the west coast of Scotland. They are mostly of a small black breed, called Kyloes. They are very hardy, and, when brought into good pasture, fatten rapidly and produce the finest and best flavoured beef. They are found in the greatest perfection in the Isle of Skye, and are sent annually in large droves to Scotland and England. They are particularly in request in Norfolk, Suffolk, and Essex, where they are wintered on turnips, and sent to Smithfield in the spring and summer following. If they do not produce so great a weight of beef as many other breeds, they always bring the highest price in the market, and require a very short time to get fat. The Galloway is a peculiar breed, which has many good qualities: it has no horns; the body is compact, and the legs short; and few breeds can vie with the Galloway oxen and heifers in aptitude to fatten. There is a peculiar roundness in all the parts of the body, which makes the animal look well in flesh, even when he is lean. The skin is loose, and the hair soft and silky to the touch. They are mostly black. Many of the Galloway heifers are spayed, and get very fat at an early age. The Galloway cows are not very good milkers, but their milk is rich.

The Angus doddie is a polled breed, and has been long in repute. It is probably a variety of the Galloway, to which it bears a strong resemblance, but it has been found in Angus from time immemorial.

The Shetland cattle are very diminutive and coarsely shaped, but their flesh is well flavoured. They are seldom driven into England or the south of Scotland, because when fat they attain a very small weight. The breed is, however, worth the notice of experimental agriculturists.

The Aberdeenshire and Fifeshire breeds are horned, and have been produced by various crosses with short-horns and other English breeds. All the Scotch breeds have been greatly improved by the premiums given by the Highland Society for the encouragement of breeding.

Of Irish cattle, the small Kerry cow seems to be purely native. It is a useful breed for cottagers, requiring only

It can never be too much impressed upon agriculturists, that without dung there is no corn; without cattle there is no dung. Every means should therefore be used to encourage the breeding and feeding of cattle: the profits of a farm are always proportioned to the quantity of cattle kept, and the abundance of the food provided for them.

Cow.

We now proceed to describe the proper management of a cow, so as to make her most productive; and we shall notice the most common diseases to which this animal is subject.

Where only one or two cows are kept, especially where they are to be maintained on a limited portion of pasture, it is of great importance that a good choice be made when they are purchased or reared. Some breeds are certainly much superior to others; but as a general rule, there is a better chance of having a profitable cow if she be reared on the land on which she is to be kept. When the common breed of the country is decidedly inferior, it may be profitable to bring a cow from a distance, in which case it should be from some district of which the pasture is rather inferior to that to which she is brought, or at least not better. The best breeds are found in the richest pastures, but they do not thrive on worse. On poor land a small active cow will pick her food and keep in condition, where a fine large cow would starve, or at least fall off rapidly. This is particularly the case in the mountains, near the tops of which no domestic animal will live but the goat, and next to it the smallest breed of cows. Where the pastures are poor but extensive cows give little milk, and the number which can be kept must make up for the produce of each. Where, on the other hand, cows are stalled, as in Flanders, and fed on artificial food brought to them in sufficient quantity, large bulky cows give the best return for the food; at least this seems to be the opinion of the Flemish farmers in general. In France, where the cows are led along the roads to pick up the herbage growing by the roadside, or are tethered on a small portion of clover or lucern, a small lean cow is preferred; and in general the cows commonly met with, and which are bred in each district, seem the best adapted for the mode in which they are fed. Whatever be the breed or quality of a cow she should always have plenty of food, without which no considerable produce in milk can be expected. This food should be succulent as well as nourishing, or else fat will be produced instead of milk. A cow well fed may be safely milked till within a month of her calving. It is better that she should be dry before the new milk begins to spring in her udder. A little attention will readily prevent her becoming dry too soon, or being milked too long. Heifers with their first calf should be allowed to go dry sooner than older cows, because their growth would be impeded by the double drain of the milk and the calf. It is best to let heifers go to the bull when nature prompts them to it, provided they are not less than 15 or 18 months old; for if they are thwarted in their first heat they are apt to become irregular ever after; and it is advantageous for a cow to calve regularly at the same season of the year. The best time is May, when the grass begins to be succulent. In some countries, such as Switzerland, the cows calve regularly in April or May, and are then sent to the pastures among the mountains. The calf is killed almost immediately, unless it be reared for stock, veal being of little value.

A cottager with two or three acres of moderate land may keep a cow, and thus add much to his earnings as a labourer. For this purpose he will require a small portion of permanent grass fenced off, to allow the cow to take exercise, which is necessary to her health. Her food must be raised in regular succession, and cut for her. The earliest green food is rye; then tares; then clover-which may be made so to succeed each other as to give an ample supply. Cabbages, beet-root,

winter; and the dung and urine of the cow carefully collected will be sufficient to keep the land in condition. This system, lately introduced into some parts of Ireland, has already greatly improved the condition of the industrious poor. There is very good advice on this management in Cobbett's 'Cottage Economy.'

Where cows are allowed to be in the open air, with proper shelter in case of stormy and wet weather, they are subject to few diseases. They must be carefully looked to at the time of calving, but except in urgent cases nature must be allowed to perform her own office. A little common sense and experience will soon teach the possessor of a cow to assist nature, if absolutely necessary; and in case of difficulties the safest way is to call in an experienced person. Drinks and medicines should be avoided; a little warm water, with some barley or bean meal mixed with it, is the most comfortable drink for a cow after calving. The calf, and not the cow, should have the first milk, which is adapted to purge its intestines of a glutinous substance which is always found in the new-born calf.

A very common disease with cows is a disordered function of the liver, producing a yellowish tint in the eyes, and sometimes in the skin. A gentle purge, consisting of half a pound of Glauber salts, an ounce of ginger, and two ounces of treacle, with two quarts of boiling water poured over them, may be given when it is milk-warm, and repeated every other day; the cow should be kept warm, if it be in winter, by a cloth over the loins, and in a shed. This will in general restore her health. Should the cow appear to have a chronic affection, the safest course for a cottager is to part with her at any price to those who may be better skilled in curing diseases; for it is seldom that a cow is worth the expense of the farrier's attendance in such cases. The symptoms of a diseased liver or lungs in a cow are leanness, with a staring coat, a husky cough with loss of appetite, a difficulty of breathing, and a great diminution in the secretion of the milk. The first loss by the sale of the cow is always the least in the end. In accidents or acute diseases the attendance of a clever veterinary surgeon is indispensable.

Nothing is more untrue than the notion that medicines are necessary to maintain cows in health; and the practice of keeping advertised medicines at hand to give to an animal whenever it is fancied to be ill, is very detrimental to their health. Attention to food and exercise, giving the first regularly and in moderate quantities at a time, and allowing the cow to use her own judgment as to the latter, are the great means of health; and a healthy young cow reared at home, or purchased of a conscientious dealer, will probably live to old age without ever having had any disease. A cow is old and unprofitable when she reaches 12 or 14 years. She should then be sold and a young one purchased. If the cottager have the means of rearing a cow-calf to succeed the old mother he will do well; if not, he must lay by a portion of the cow's produce every year to raise the difference between the value of the old cow and a young one. The saving banks are admirable institutions for this purpose: a few shillings laid by when the produce of the cow is greatest, will soon amount to the sum required to exchange an old one for a younger.

Calf.

The rearing and fattening of calves is a very important part of rural economy. In the dairy districts the milk is so valuable, that calves are got rid of as soon as possible. In some countries they are killed when only a few days old, and the flesh is of little value, being very soft and tasteless. In others the flesh of very young calves is considered unwholesome, and penalties have been imposed on those who kill a calf before a certain age. This is the case in France and Switzerland, where ten days is the earliest time at which a calf is permitted to be killed for sale.