it is remarked that," Whereas the labourers and occupiers of husbandry within this realm be daily grievously endamaged by bringing of corn out of other lands and parts into this realm when corn of the growing of this realm is at a low price;" in remedy of which it was enacted that wheat should not be imported unless the price at the place of import exceeded 68. 8d. per quarter. Up to this time there is no reason to believe that the importation of corn from abroad had been either prohibited or subjected to restriction. Such a prohibition would have been opposed to the spirit of our old commercial policy, which was anxiously directed to the object of attracting to the country, and preserving within it, as much food as possible. The agricultural interest had already succeeded in carrying one modification of the old principle, by which they obtained the liberty of sending corn abroad, and their ascendency was still further indicated by the restriction on the importation of corn imposed by the statute of 1463. So long as the price of wheat was below 6s. 8d. per quarter, exportation was free, and importation was prohibited. The price, therefore, was intended to be sustained at that height, so far as it was possible' so to sustain it by legislative contrivance; and the benefit of the corn-grower was the sole object of the statute. In 1474 (eleven years after the statute 3 Edw. IV. c. 2, was passed) we have the authority of the Paston Letters in proof of the suffering experienced from the want of a market for the superabundant supply of grain. Margaret Paston, writing to her son on the 29th of Jan. 1474, after quoting the very low price of corn and grain, says "There is none outload suffered to go out of this country as yet; the king hath commanded that there should none go out of this land. I fear me we shall have right a strange world: God amend it when his will is." In a letter written in the following year she makes the same complaints about low prices and the scarcity of money. The gentry and farmers of this period were in much the same condition in regard to money matters as the landowners of Poland and other parts of northern and eastern Europe at the present time, after abundant harvests, with the ports of the best markets temporarily or permanently closed against the admission of their surplus produce. The protective statute of 1463 had possibly stimulated tillage beyond the demand of the home market, and the abundance of the harvest in other countries caused the ports to be closed against them, or, as in the instance alluded to by Margaret Paston, exportation was prohibited from some motives of state policy.

In 1533-4 an end was put to the system of free exportation which had been established in 1463, and, with some few occasional exceptions, had continued from that time; and thenceforth it was forbidden to export corn and provisions without the king's licence. The statute enacted for this purpose was intended to keep down prices, though the preamble sets out with the rational observation that, "forasmuch as dearth, scarcity, good cheap [good market], and plenty [of victual], happeneth, riseth, and chanceth, of so many and divers reasons that it is very hard and difficult to put any certain prices to any such things." It however ended by enacting that, on complaint being made of high prices, they shall be regulated by the lords of the council, and made known by proclamation; and that farmers and others shall sell their commodities at the prices thus fixed.

During the greater part of the sixteenth century a struggle was maintained by the makers of the laws against the rise of prises which characterised nearly the whole of that period. The discouragement of tillage and the increase of sheep-pastures were supposed to be the main causes of this rise. In 1533 a statute was passed which enacted that no man should keep more than two thousand sheep, except on his own land, and that no tenant should rent more than two farms.|| The statute entitled "An Act for the Maintenance and Increase of Tillage and Corn" attempted to force cultivation by enacting that for the future at least as much land should be tilled in every * 3 Edw. IV. c. 2. †Paston Letters, vol. ii. p. 91. Edit. by A. Ramsay. Ibid. p. 93. § 25 Hen. VIII. c. 2. Ibid. c. 13.

parish as had been under the plough at any time since the accession of Henry VIII., under a penalty, to be exacted from the parish, of 5s. for every acre that should be deficient.

This remarkable period in the history of agriculture, and in the social condition of the people, was marked by other singular regulations respecting the supply of the necessaries of life and their price. In September, 1549, a proclamation was issued, directed against dealers in the principal articles of food. According to it, no man was to buy and sell the self-same thing again, except brokers, and they were not to have more than ten quarters of grain in their possession at one time. This proclamation directed "that all justices should divide themselves into the hundreds, and look what superfluous corn was in every barn, and appoint it to be sold at a reasonable price; also, that one must be in every market-town to see the corn bought. Whoso brought no corn to market, as he was appointed, was to forfeit 10., unless the purveyors took it up, or it was sold to the neighbours." Obedience to these regulations was not confined to the temporary provisions of a proclamation; but in 1551-2 they were, with some modifications, embodied in a statute. By this enactment, engrossers (persons buying corn to sell again) were subjected to heavy penalties. For the third offence they were to be set in the pillory, to forfeit their personal effects, and to be imprisoned during the king's pleasure. Farmers buying corn for seed were compelled to sell at the same time an equal quantity of their corn in store, under penalty of forfeiting double the value of what they had bought. Persons might engross corn, not forestalling it—that is, enhancing the price or preventing the supply—when wheat was under 6s. 8d. per quarter.

In 1562-3 a further attempt was made to restrict the operations of buying and selling in articles of food, as well as many other commodities. The 5 and 6 Edw. VI. c. 14, already quoted, contained a proviso that corn-badgers, allowed to that office by three justices of the peace of the county where the said badger dwelt, could buy provisions in open fair or market for towns and cities, and sell them, without being guilty of the offence of forestalling; but this relaxation of the statute was corrected by another statute passed in 1562-3,‡ in the preamble of which the former enactment is thus alluded to:-"Since the making of which act such a great number of persons, seeking only to live easily and to leave their honest labour, have and do daily seek to be allowed to the said office, being most unfit and unmeet for those purposes, and also very hurtful to the commonwealth of this realm, as well as by enhancing the price of corn and grain, as also by the diminishing of good and necessary husbandmen." It was then enacted that the licences to corn-badgers should only be granted once a-year by the justices at quarter-sessions, instead of at any period by three justices; and that none were to obtain a licence but resident householders of three years' standing, who are or have been married, and of the age of thirty, and are not servants or retainers to another person. Those who received a licence were to have it renewed at the end of every year. Licensed persons were also required to find security not to forestall or engross in their dealings, and not to buy out of open fair or market, except under express licence. The statute did not apply to the counties of Westmoreland, Cumberland, Lancaster, Chester, and York.

It was scarcely possible for the legislature to do more towards the discouragement of a most useful class of men, whose operations are of such service to society in general, and to the poor in particular. But enactments of this description were loudly demanded by the people, who could scarcely get bread sometimes in consequence of the high price of provisions, which they attributed to the intervention of the corndealer between the producer and consumer.

The system introduced in 1534, under which exportation was interdicted, lasted about twenty years, and even during that period was most probably in a great degree inoperative.

* King Edw. VI.'s Journal; Sharon Turner's Hist. Eng., vol. i. p. 172. + 5 and 6 Edw. VI. c. 14, 15 Eliz. c. 1%.

*

In 1554 a new act was passed, which restored the freedom of export so long as the price of wheat should not exceed 6s. 8d., that of rye 4s., and that of barley 3s. per quarter. The preamble complains that former acts against the exportation of grain and provisions had been evaded, by reason whereof they had grown unto a "wonderful dearth and extreme prices." Under the present act, when prices exceeded 6s. 8d. per quarter for wheat, exportation was to cease; and when it was under that price it could not be exported to any foreign country, or to Scotland, without a licence, under penalty of forfeiting double the value of the cargo as well as the vessel, besides imprisonment of the master and mariners of the vessel for one year. The penalty for exporting a greater quantity than was warranted by the licence was treble the value of the cargo, and imprisonment; and a cargo could be taken only to the port mentioned in the licence. The object of the act was in effect to prevent exportation when there was not a sufficient supply in the home market, and to permit it to be sent abroad so long as it was below a certain price at home.

In 1562, only eight years after the above act had been passed, the liberty of exportation was extended, and wheat might be carried out of the country when the average price was 10s. per quarter, that of rye, peas, and beans 8s., and that of barley or malt 6s. 8d. per quarter. The better to prevent evasion of the law, it was at the same time enacted that the commodity should only be exported from such ports as her Majesty might by proclamation appoint.

In 1571 a statute was passed which contains provisions for settling once a-year the average prices by which exportation should be governed. The Lord President and Council in the North, also the Lord President and Council in Wales, and the Justices of Assize, within their respective jurisdictions, "yearly shall, upon conference had with the inhabitants of the country, of the cheapness and dearth of any kinds of grain," determine "whether it shall be meet at any time to permit any grain to be carried out of any port within the said several jurisdictions or limits; and so shall, in writing, under their hands and seal, cause and make a determination either for permission or prohibition, and the same cause to be, by the sheriff of the counties, published and affixed in as many accustomed market-towns and ports within the said shire as they shall think convenient." The averages, when once struck, were to continue in force until the same authorities ordered otherwise; and if their regulations should "be hurtful to the country by means of dearth, or be a great hinderance to tillage by means of too much cheapness," they could make the necessary alterations. All proceedings under this act were to be notified to the queen or privy council. The statute enacted that, "for the better increase of tillage, and for maintenance and increase of the navy and mariners of this realm," corn might be exported at all times to friendly countries, when proclamation was not made to the contrary. A poundage or customs duty of 1s. per quarter was charged on all wheat exported; but if exported under a special licence, and not under the act, the customs duty was 2s. per quarter.

The law of 1463, which prohibited importation so long as the price of wheat was under 6s. Ed., that of rye under 4s., and that of barley under 3s. the quarter, appears not to have been repealed, but it must have remained inoperative, from the prices seldom or probably never descending below these rates. The importation of corn, therefore, we may reckon to have been practically free at this time, so far as the law could render it so.

In 1592-3 the price at which exportation was permitted was raised to 20s. per quarter, and the customs duty was fixed at 2s. In 1603-4 the importation price was raised to 268. 8d. per quarter;|| and, in 1623, to 32s.¶-having risen, in the course of sixty-five years, from 68. 8d. By the 21 Jac. I. c. 28, unless wheat was under 32s. per quarter, and other grain in proportion, buying corn and selling it again was not per

mitted. The King could restrain the liberty of exportation by proclamation. In 1627-8 another statute relative to the corn-trade was passed, which, however, made no alteration in the previous statute of James I. In 1660 a new scale of duties was introduced. When the price of wheat per quarter was under 448. the export duty was 5s. 6d.; and when the price was above 448., the duty rose to 68. Sd. Exportation was permitted free whenever the price of wheat did not exceed 40s. per quarter.+

In 1663 the corn-trade again became the subject of legislation, and an act was passed which favoured the corn-grower, or at any rate that portion of the community connected with and dependent upon agriculture, to a greater extent than any previous statute. The preamble of this act commenced by asserting that "the surest and effectualest means of promoting and advancing any trade, occupation, or mystery, being by rendering it profitable to the users thereof," and that, large quantities of land being waste, which might be profitably cultivated if sufficient encouragement were given for the cost and labour on the same, it should be enacted, with a view of encouraging the application of capital and labour to waste lands, that, after September, 1663, when wheat did not exceed 48s. per quarter at the places and havens of shipment, the export duty should be only 5s. 4d. per quarter. The demand of the home market was not sufficient to take off the surplus produce of the corn-growers, and the reduction of the duty was intended to encourage exportation. By the same act when wheat did not exceed 488. per quarter, "then it shall be lawful for all and every person (not forestalling nor selling the same in the open market within three months after the buying thereof) to buy in open market, and to keep in his or their granaries or houses, and to sell again, such corn and grain," any statute to the contrary notwithstanding. The latter part of this statute may be regarded as indicating a juster view than others passed since the 5 and 6 Edw. VI. c. 14.

In 1670 a further important change was made in the same direction, exportation being permitted as long as wheat should be under 53s. 4d. the quarter, the customs duty being only 1s. per quarter. Corn imported from foreign countries was at the same time loaded with duties so heavy as effectually to exclude it, being 16s. when the price in this country was at or under 53s. 4d. per quarter, and 8s. when above that price and under 80s., at which latter price importation became free.§ The object of this act was to relieve the agricultural interests from the depression under which they were labouring from the low prices of produce which had existed for twenty years, more particularly from 1646 to 1665, and also more or less during the greater part of the century. Between 1617 and 1621 wheat fell from 43s. 3d. the quarter to 278., in consequence of which farmers were unable to pay their rents. The low price was occasioned by abundant harvests; "for remedy whereof the Council have written letters into every shire, and some say to every market-town, to provide a granary or storehouse, with a stock to buy corn, and keep it for a dear year." The cheapness of wheat was attended with the good effect of raising the standard of diet amongst the poorer classes, who are described as "traversing the markets to find out the finest wheats, for none else would now serve their use, though before they were glad of the coarser rye-bread." The act of 1670 does not appear to have answered its object. Roger Coke, writing in 1671, says "The ends designed by the acts against the importation of Irish cattle, of raising the rents of the lands of England, are so far from being attained that the contrary hath ensued;" ** and he speaks of a great diminution of cultivation.

The harvests of 1673-4-5 proved defective, and the same result occurred in 1677-8, so that the average price of the seven years ending 1672, during which wheat ranged at 36s. the

quarter, was followed in the seven subsequent years, ending 1679, by an average of 468., being a rise of nearly 30 per cent. Under this encouragement there was a considerable extension of tillage, and the years of scarcity being followed by twelve abundant seasons in succession (with the exception of 1684, which was somewhat deficient), the price of corn and grain again sunk very low. In the six years ending 1691 the average price of wheat was 29s. 5d. the quarter, and if the four years ending 1691 be taken, the average price was only 278. 7d., being lower than at any period during the whole of the century. There was no competition in the English market with the foreign grower during the above-mentioned years of low prices; exportation was freely permitted on payment of a uominal duty; but scarcely ever had the agriculturists been in so depressed a state. The means which they took to relieve themselves will be noticed in the next period.

Before closing this section we may notice the alteration which took place in 1670 in the mode of striking the average prices of corn and grain. The old system established in 1570 (13 Eliz. c. 13) was acted upon until 1685, the Corn Act of 1670 having neglected the necessary directions for an alteration. These were made by a statute which enacted that justices of the peace, in counties wherein foreign corn might be imported, may, at quarter-sessions, by the oaths of two persons duly qualified, that is, possessed of freehold estates of the annual value of 201., or leasehold estates of 507., and not being corn-dealers, and by such other means as they shall see fit, determine the market price of middling English corn, which is to be certified on oath, hung up in some public place, and sent to the chief officer at the custom-house in each district.

Second Period.-From 1689 to 1773.

In 1689, immediately after the Revolution, the landowners succeeded in carrying a very important measure. The high prices of the seven years ending 1679 had doubtless encouraged tillage, and a succession of favourable seasons had under these circumstances led to a great depreciation in the value of agricultural produce. Exportation of corn therefore was not only to be permitted as heretofore, but actually encouraged by bounties. The statute for granting bounties is entitled "An Act for Encouraging the Exportation of Curn."* The preamble stated that it had been " found by experience that the exportation of corn and grain into foreign countries, when the price thereof is at a low rate in this kingdom, hath been a great advantage, not only to the owners of land, but to the traders of this kingdom in general;" and clauses were enacted granting 5s. the quarter on the exportation of wheat, so long as the home price did not exceed 48s.; with other bounties of smaller amount upon the exportation of barley, malt, and rye. It was supposed that the farmers and landholders would thus be relieved from the distress arising from low prices. They were in possession of a market the sole supply of which they had secured to themselves by the act of 1670, and by the Bounty Act they endeavoured to prevent that market being overstocked by their own commodity.

The seven years immediately succeeding 1693 were remarkable for a succession of unfavourable seasons. In the four years ending 1691 the price of wheat averaged 278. 7d. the quarter, but in the four years preceding and including 1699 it reached 56s. 6d. The bounty was inoperative during this period, and was suspended by an act of Parliament from the 9th of February, 1699, to the 29th of September, 1700. Nevertheless, in order that no fears might be excited by this tempo. rary suspension, the preamble contained an acknowledgment that the statute granting the bounty "was grounded upon the highest wisdom and prudence, and has succeeded, to the greatest benefit and advantage to the nation by the greatest encouragement of tillage." Before this temporary act had † 12 Wm. III. c. 1.

1 Wm. and Mary, c. 12.

expired, another act was passed,* in 1700, by which the encouragement of the home corn-grower was carried still further by the abolition of all the then existing duties on the export of corn. "From 1697 to 1773 the total excess of exports was 30,968,366 quarters, upon which export bounties, amounting to 6,237,1767., were paid out of the public revenue."† In 1750 the sum of 324,1767. was paid in bounties on corn. The exports of 1748-9-50 (during which, moreover, the price of wheat fell from 328. 10d. to 28s. 10d. the quarter) amounted to 2,120,000 quarters of wheat, and of all kinds of corn and grain to 3,825,000 quarters. This was the result of a cycle of abundant years. In the twenty-three years from 1692 to 1715, says Mr. Tooke, in his elaborate History of Prices,' there were eleven bad seasons, during which the average price of wheat was 45s. Ed. the quarter; in the fifty years ending 1765 there were only five deficient harvests, and the average price for the whole half-century ranged at 34s. 1ld.; or, taking the ten years ending 1751, during which the crops were above an average, the price of wheat was only 29s. 2 d. the quarter.

These years of plenty seem to have been a very happy period to the bulk of the population. Adam Smith refers to "the peculiarly happy circumstances" of the country during these times of plenty; and Mr. Hallam describes the reign of George II. as "the most prosperous period that England had ever experienced." The effect was similar to that which took place during the plentiful seasons of the preceding century, and the improved condition of the people was marked by the enjoyment of greater comforts and the resort to a superior diet which their command over the necessaries of life enabled them to obtain. "Bread made of wheat is become more generally the food of the labouring people," observes the author of the 'Corn Tracts,' writing in 1765. Referring to the same period, Mr. Malthus remarks:-"It is well known that during this period the price of corn fell considerably, while the wages of labour are stated to have risen. During the last forty years of the seventeenth century, and the first twenty of the eighteenth, the average price of corn was such as, compared with the wages of labour, would enable the labourer to purchase with a day's earnings two-thirds of a peck of wheat. From 1720 to 1750 the price of wheat had so fallen, while wages had risen, that, instead of two-thirds, the labourer could purchase the whole of a peck of wheat with a day's labour." Mr. Malthus adds that the result of this increased command over the necessaries of life was not attended with an increase of population exclusively,—“a considerable portion of their increased net wages was expended in a marked improvement of the quality of the food consumed, and a decided elevation in the standard of their comforts and conveniences." Trade was flourishing and the exports and imports progressively increasing during this period of abundance.

The cycle of good seasons which the country had for so long a period fortunately enjoyed (for twenty-six years, from 1730 to 1755, there had been only one unfavourable season) was followed by a succession of bad years, in which the harvests proved as deficient as they had before been abundant. From 1765 to 1775 there was a very frequent recurrence of unfavourable years, and the last five years of this period were all of this character. In 1766 the quartern loaf was selling in London at 1s. 6d. ; addresses were sent up from various parts of the country complaining of general distress; and a proclamation was issued suspending exportation, and for enforcing the laws against forestallers and regraters. Exportation was suspended also in the following year, as was the case also in 1770 and 1771. In 1772 importation was allowed duty-free to the 1st of May, 1773; and in this latter year the city of London offered a bounty of 48. per quarter for 20,000 quarters of wheat, to be imported between March and June. The average prices of wheat had risen from 298. 24d. in the ten years ending 1751 to 51s. for the ten years ending 1774, being an advance of 75

*11 and 12 Wm. III. c. 20.

Report of Commons on Agric. Distress, 1821.