The Chinese language is monosyllabic, and the Egyptian is formed on the same principle. The Egyptians therefore, as well as the Chinese, might assert, that in order to write the word Ró-mi (man) for instance, they should employ the figure of a mouth, named Ró in the spoken language, and that of a lioness, Mie, which to the ear would pronounce the word Ró-mi, signifying a man; and with the strict understanding that these two signs, which here phonetically represent the sounds Ró-mi, should not cease elsewhere to represent figuratively the ideas of mouth and lioness. Such was the incoherent phonetic improvement introduced into the Chinese system of writing.

Egypt went still further; she decomposed the syllables of her language into isolated letters, and gave to each voice or articulation one or more special fixed signs, all proceeding on the same principle, consisting equally of figurative signs, but which thenceforward lost their figurative quality, and became exclusively phonetic; for if by necessity they resumed at any time their figurative character, they were marked by two auxiliary signs, which at once indicated the change, and preserved anew, as it were, their phonetic nature.

In China, on the contrary, the troublesome effects of a want of a regular nomenclature of the syllabic groups were soon perceived; the same syllable was not always expressed by the same group; a choice was made of arbitrary or hastily-adopted signs; and the same group was made to express different syllables. Much confusion and irregularity arose from this first invention, which has no title to be considered "comme le plus ancien essai de l'art d'écrire, dont aucune nation nous ait conservé l'intelligence;" this is certainly a mistake, since the Egyptian alphabet existed on original monuments thousands of years before the shapeless Chinese syllabic system.

The latter long remained in this insufficient and confused

state, until another more analytically inventive genius put a stop, by a very simple process, to such irregularity and confusion. In regard to this fact (from the effect of an analogy to be subsequently noticed), the opinion of M. Abel-Rémusat may be adopted, when he observes, "Les classes nombreuses des caractères hing-ching (ou de son) se sont trouvées décomposées suivant un procédé précisément inverse de celui qui avait servi à leur formation."* There are in reality in the Chinese language many things named by homophonous words; how then can we distinguish one from another, or clearly individualize all that may be expressed by the syllable li or any other? This is effected by adding to the phonetic group li another group entirely figurative, expressing the idea of the class of objects to which the object li naturally belongs, which figurative group thus becomes a very fit generic sign to prevent any confusion of words, and all doubt in the expression of the phonetic sign.

But what else are the determinative signs employed in Egyptian writing, than the generic signs of the Chinese? In Egypt at the end of phonetic groups, expressing the names of quadrupeds, was written the figure of the lower half of an ox-hide; at the end of all the names of birds, the figure of a goose; at the end of all the names of reptiles, the figure of a serpent; at the end of the names of trees, the figure of a tree; at the end of names of materials for building, that of a stone, &c. This is precisely the value of the generic signs of the Chinese writing, for the word li and the figure of a tree signify a pear-tree; ki and a tree, an osier; peï and a tree, a wooden bowl; pa and a tree, a wooden handle; pe and a tree, a cypress; ken and a tree, the root of a tree: so ki and a bird signify a duck; ya and a bird, a raven; hong and a bird, a goose; and in this small number of instances we find

* Elémens de la Grammaire Chinoise, p. 9, 8vo., Par., 1822.-ED.

an apposite example in the word ki, twice cited with two very opposite significations; and it is by means of its generic or determinative sign, a tree in one place and a bird in another, that we are informed that ki in one place means an osier, and in the other a duck. (See Plate II., No. 3, after the horizontal line.) In like manner, in Egyptian, the determinative sign of a goose teaches us whether the group 2 (HB) indicates the bird ibis or a plough.

In the Egyptian writing the determinative sign is usually placed after the phonetic group; in the Chinese it is placed either before or after, above or below; but out of 240 of these signs, 85 are invariably placed after the phonetic groups, and at least an equal number indifferently before or after. If the same irregularity were introduced into the use of the Egyptian signs, their expression would not be less clear nor less certain, than that of the Chinese signs under the same conditions. Even if we adopt the views of the lexicographers, who endeavour to reduce all the phonetic groups to a generic root, with a view to a supportable classification, (not forgetting Hiu Chin, the author of the first essay of this kind; who, in the year 121 of the Christian era, reduced 133,441 words to 9,353 fundamental classical characters, which he arranged under 540 radicals: a variable number, subsequently reduced to 329, and finally to 214, named keys,) and arrange, in like manner, the phonetic Egyptian groups in the order of their determinative signs, we shall obtain an Egyptian dictionary in the order of keys, similar to the Chinese dictionaries.

The phonetico-figurative groups of the Chinese writing represent, moreover, the greater portion of the words of the language; and it is the same with the phonetic determined writing of the Egyptians. Certain Chinese groups are referred to a key, of which the direct or indirect relation to the thing expressed by the sign of sound is unknown; the traditions

are lost, and we may easily therefore comprehend on this point, and on others, that in the general theory of the figurative Chinese writing, it is necessary to consult those able guides who have in their works best explained the general principles of the writing and language of China.

The specimens collected in Plates I. and II., refer to the first state of Chinese writing. The state in which its signs were figurative, independent of their expression, is shewn in Plate I., No. 1; their first simplification by the use of linear signs, in Plate I., No. 2, and Plate II., No. 1; and their still greater simplification or earliest degradation, in which the writing more evidently departs from the figurative linear signs, in Plate II., Nos. 2 and 3. We cannot venture to compare this new species of writing with the hieratic Egyptian, except in regard to their common object; since the hieratic writing is also an abbreviation, a tachygraphy of the figured writing; but the abridged Egyptian appears in transcription to have been made with greater reserve,-an evident advantage, probably resulting from the originality and age of the monuments on which our judgment is founded.

After this first degradation in China, various others still more unfortunate followed; the regular forms of the figurative writing were corrupted by degrees; their principal outlines were deformed; the use of paper, ink, and pencil was generally introduced, facilitating more and more the alteration of the ancient signs, and the invention of new ones; their combinations became more easy to delineate, and the number of groups of writing was augmented to 100,000; at the same time that by the use of new forms they became distinct from the originals, from which they derived their real signification.

The most able Chinese scholars who have studied these different species of writing, have classed them, either according to their age, or according to the forms which constitute

their essential character, numerous specimens of which are brought together in Plates III. and IV.

The specimen No. 1, in Plate III., is named chouèn; it is considered to be older than the time of Confucius, and to have been in use from the third to the seventh century before the Christian era. This kind of writing affects generally a square form, and is composed of rectangular lines*. usually employed for seals, used instead of signatures.

It is

The specimen No. 2, of the same Plate, is a variety of this kind of chouèn writing, composed of straight and doubled strokes, the invention of which is attributed to the Minister Li-sse, about the year 210 B.C. On the right hand side of each chouen group of Li-sse is added its equivalent in modern Chinese writing.

The specimen No. 3 in Plate III. nearly approaches the actual form of modern writing. This kind of writing is called li, or official, and is said to have been invented in the second century B.C., in order to replace the chouèn writing; it is large and massive, and is sometimes used for the printing of prefaces.

The first example in Plate IV. is a kind of writing absolutely cursive; rendered very difficult to read from the number of ligatures. Its invention is referred to the first century of the Christian era, and it is employed in the prefaces of books, and for inscriptions on screens, fans, sticks of ink, verses, &c.

The example No. 2 of the same Plate exhibits another very complicated minuscule tachygraphic kind of writing; at the side of which are the same groups, according to the sense, in ordinary writing.

Lastly, in Plate IV. No. 3, are represented three lines of the square writing used in printing, taken from some of the finest

*This description is applicable rather to the second kind of chouen writing, in No. 2, since the lines of the characters in No. 1 are all more or less rounded.-ED.