mary association, we find, considering of course the relation the numbers bear to each other, that by very far the largest part, including the best, is absorbed by those that are least entitled to it; the smallest portion, including that which is inferior, being assigned to those that are most entitled to the largest quantity of the best; namely, the most industrious of the productive population. That agricultural labourers, whom we mentioned as an example, are among the most important persons in an association, cannot be denied. Men may exist for a considerable time, though their clothing, habitation, and mental culture, is not what it should be; but a constant and due supply of food is indispensable.

170. Rousseau and the Abbé Mably have made an objection, says Mr. M'Culloch, to the institution of private property, which has been in some measure sanctioned by Beccaria and others. They allow that this institution is advantageous for those who possess property, but they contend that it is disadvantageous for those who are poor and destitute. It has condemned, they affirm, the greater portion of mankind to a state of misery, and has provided for the exaltation of the few by the depression of the many. The sophistry of this reasoning is so apparent as hardly to require being pointed out. Every individual is constantly exerting himself to find out the most advantageous methods of employing his capital and labour. It is true, that it is his own advantage, and not that of the society, which he has in view; but a society being nothing more than a collection of individuals, it is plain that each, in steadily pursuing his own aggrandizement, is following that precise line of conduct which is most for the public advantage. (Princip. Pol. Econ.) We have adverted to an erroneous doctrine advocated by Adam Smith. In reference to Mr. M'Culloch's observations, it will be only necessary again to quote his own words: "The sophistry of this reasoning is so apparent as hardly to require being pointed out." (It is, however, due to observe, that his writings indicate him to be an enlightened and good man.) To evince this, the following is sufficient. It should, says he, always be kept steadily in view, that it is never any part of the business of the economist to inquire into the means by which the fortunes of individuals may have been increased or diminished, except to ascertain their general operation and effect. The public interests ought always to form the exclusive object of his attention. He is not to frame systems, and devise schemes for increasing the wealth and enjoyments of particular classes, but to apply himself to discover the sources of national wealth and universal prosperity. (Disc. on Pol. Econ.)

171. The following will perhaps be considered just views on the subject of political economy. The tendency of the existing arrangement of things as to wealth, says Mr. Thompson, is to

enrich a few at the expense of the mass of the producers, to make the poverty of the poor more hopeless, to throw back the middling classes upon the poor; that a few may be enabled, not only to accumulate, in perniciously large masses, the real national, which is the only aggregate of individual capital; but also, by means of such accumulations, to command the product of the yearly labour of the community.-(Inquiry into the Distribution of Wealth.) It has been, and still is, says Mr. Owen, a received opinion among theorists in political economy, that man can provide better for himself, and more advantageously for the public when left to his own individual exertions, opposed to and in competition with his fellows, than when aided by any social arrangement which shall unite his interests individually and generally with society. This principle of individual interest, opposed as it is perpetually to the public good, is considered by the most celebrated political economists to be the corner-stone of the social system, and without which society could not subsist; yet, when they shall discover the wonderful effects which combination and unity can produce, they will acknowledge that the present arrangement of society is the most anti-social, impolitic, and irrational that can be devised; that under its influence all the superior and valuable qualities of human nature are repressed from infancy, and that the most unnatural means are used to bring out the most injurious propensities-in short, that the utmost pains are taken to make that which by nature is the most delightful compound for producing excellence and happiness,-absurd, imbecile, and wretched!-(Report to the County of Lanark.) I cannot, says Dr. Hall, help considering all or almost all that which is called original corruption and evil disposition, to be the effects of the system of civilization, falsely so called, and particularly that prominent feature of it, the great inequality of property. Do we not see in children artless simplicity, pure disinterestedness, and benevolence, so constantly as to be characteristic of that age; and does not scripture itself characterize children by those qualities, and as such declare them fit for the reception of the gospel? As they advance in life, the natural dispositions of that age become gradually altered and corrupted. I would ask, whether any other cause whatever is so well adapted to counteract and destroy these good qualities of simplicity, disinterestedness, and benevolence, as the mine and thine established in such a rigorous and unrelenting manner?-(Effects of Civilization.)

172. Mrs. Radcliffe observed, that the infatuation of loving money, not as a mean, but as an end, was paramount in the mind of almost every Dutchman, whatever might be his other dispositions and qualities. The addiction to it was fervent, inveterate, and universal, from youth to the feeblest old age.

Almost the same thing is said of the North Americans. Two English gentlemen being in company with a Dutchman, one of the former not understanding Dutch, desired his friend to apologize for not being able to enjoy the pleasure of the Hollander's company. The Dutchman heard the translation with great composure, and taking his pipe from his mouth, said, "There was a consolation for the accident; since, "added he," having no connections and dealings in trade together, our conversing could not possibly answer any useful purpose."

173. Experience proves, says Guthrie, that in the more simple state of men, the selfish and more sordid passions are not predominant. It is, therefore, an undeniable fact, that in the uncultivated parts of Europe, generosity and friendship reign with more universal sway, than in the more refined circles; and human nature, displaying her usual efforts, appears all friendly and generous in the islands of the South Seas. There the inhabitants are profuse in their presents, and can scarcely refuse any thing that is solicited from them. Almost under every government, indigence exposes to neglect and a certain degree of reproach, but among this people poverty never renders a man contemptible; and to be affluent and at the same time avaricious, clothes a man with universal infamy and disgrace. Nay, should any individual refuse to part his provisions in time of necessity, his neighbours would suddenly rise against him and destroy all his property; and such is the strength of generosity or force of custom, that they will even part with their clothes rather than he deemed avaricious. (Geog. and Univ. Hist.) I feel convinced, says Captain Cochrane, that compassion is the leading characteristic of what are termed barbarians, and that man in a state of nature will freely give to the distressed that bread which he would not sell for money. I am confident that man is really humane, and that he gives more from the dictates of a good heart than from ostentation. I have received food from a family who were almost in a starving state, and am therefore justified by grateful experience in affirming, that those people who are the most ignorant and uncivilized are the most hospitable and friendly to their fellows. (Journey through Tartary, &c.)

174. The Most High, as has been observed, designing men a great degree of felicity in time, to be only the preparation for a still greater one in eternity; has made this felicity to arise from a constant reciprocation of kind offices between men and love to himself. The whole constitution and course of things should, therefore, throughout their operation, advance his glory, by promoting the felicity of his creatures. Hence it is, that men are dependent on each other every moment of their lives. Hence it is that they thus pray to God, 'Give us day by day our daily bread.' What, then, can be more revolting to every proper feeling, than that, in a constitution of things-where

K

nothing can be done without association,-whence consequently all the good that can flow to any, must ever emanate,—and from which, when separated all are necessarily equally inefficient, as when united all may be equally or nearly equally valuable ;-that a few are so to operate on the many, (to whom as members of the primary association to which they belong, they are indebted for all the benefits that flow to them ;) as to make the great law of their being the greatest curse to them? The imaginary good the few attain, being as to any of them far below the real good that might accrue to all without a single exception, by rightly associating. The enriched few, therefore, are but parricides!-the chief destroyers of the prosperity of the community! Truly, therefore, may be applied to them the words of Solomon-There is a way which seemeth right unto a man, but the end thereof are the ways of death'-or the language of our Lord- The light of the body is the eye: if, therefore, thine eye be single, thy whole body shall be full of light. But if thine eye be evil, thy whole body shall be full of darkness. If, therefore, the light that is in thee be darkness, how great is that darkness!' Because, instead of human association educing nothing but prosperity and happiness, and through them love to man and God in all, and thus men's temporal felicity becoming the best preparation for their eternal one; association is made to educe the combined evils of ignorance, pauperism, guilt, and misery; and through them, of neglect and hatred of men to each other, and neglect of God. Thus, whilst shipwreck is made of men's temporal happiness, their eternal welfare is greatly endangered. To those who are the prime agents of educing such effects, how forcibly, therefore, do our Lord's words apply,-If the light that is in thee be darkness, how great is that darkness!'

175. Let then the faithful servants of heaven remember, that godliness with contentment is great gain. For,' continues Paul, 'we brought nothing into this world, and it is certain we can carry nothing out; and, having food and raiment, let us be therewith content. But they that will be rich fall into temptation and a snare, and into many foolish and hurtful lusts, which drown men in destruction and perdition. For the love of money is the root of all evil; which while some' have coveted after, they have erred from the faith, and pierced themselves through with many sorrows.' 'An inheritance,' says Solomon, may be gotten hastily at the beginning, but the end thereof shall not be blessed.' And what profit hath he that hath laboured for the wind? A faithful man shall abound with blessings, but he that maketh haste to be rich shall not be innocent.' Hence all may truly join in the prayer of Agur,- Two things have I required of thee, deny me them not before I die : Remove far from me vanity and lies, give me neither poverty nor riches,

feed me with food convenient for me, lest I be full and deny thee, and say, Who is the Lord? or lest I be poor and steal, and take the name of my God in vain.'

176. And we may in some degree perceive how important it is to us, that we earnestly attend to the following passages of sacred writ:

If thou seest the oppression of the poor, and violent perverting of judgment and justice in a province, marvel not at the matter; for he that is higher than the highest regardeth.'

'If thou sell ought unto thy neighbour, or buyest ought of thy neighbour's hand, ye shall not oppress one another.'

'Let no man seek his own, but every man another's wealth.

Let 'no man go beyond and defraud his brother in any matter; because, that the Lord is the avenger of all such.' 'For God hath not called us unto uncleanness, but unto holiness.'

Envy thou not the oppressor and choose none of his ways.'

"Take heed and beware of covetousness, for a man's life consisteth not in the abundance of the things which he possesseth.'

"Woe to them that devise iniquity, and work evil upon their beds! when the morning is light they practise it, because it is in the power of their hand. And they covet fields and take them by violence, and houses and take them away; so they oppress a man and his house, even a man and his heritage.' "Woe unto them that join house to house, that lay field to field, till there be no place; that they may be placed alone in the midst of the earth!' Woe unto you that are rich! for ye have received your consolation. Woe unto you that are full! for ye shall hunger. Woe unto you that laugh now! for ye shall mourn and weep.'

All the law is fulfilled in one word, even in this:-Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself. But if ye bite and devour one another, take heed that ye be not consumed one of another.'

He that walketh righteously and speaketh uprightly, he that despiseth the gain of oppressions, that shaketh his hands from holding of bribes, that stoppeth his ears from hearing of blood, and shutteth his eyes from seeing evil. He shall dwell on high, his place of defence shall be the munitions of rocks; bread shall be given him; his waters shall be sure.'

God hath shewed thee, O man, what is good; and what doth the Lord require of thee; but to do justly, and to love mercy, and to walk humbly with thy God?"

177. The reader will here probably be ready to ask, whence comes it that the members of the same primary association go on constantly pauperizing themselves in the manner we have pointed out, a very small number only being considerably enriched, without perceiving their amazing folly? To this question the reply may be as follows:- If,' said our Lord to his hearers, ye being evil, know how to give good gifts unto your children, how much more shall your heavenly Father give the Holy Spirit to them that ask him? Another of our Lord's memorable sayings was the following, alluding to himself: 'Verily, verily, I say unto you, the Son can do nothing of himself.' If then, this divine personage to whom God giveth not the Spirit by measure,' could do nothing of himself,' how much less can such poor erring sinful creatures as men universally are,