cise of those powers which gives us ability and skill in any thing, and leads us towards perfection. (Locke.) This will almost universally apply. And, that a high degree of happiness may be attainable by men, Heaven has distinguished individuals from each other by peculiar qualities. (1 Cor. vii. 7; xii. 8 to 11; 18, 28, to 31.) It is impossible, says Dr. Good, for us to open our eyes, without perceiving some peculiar propensity, or prominent moral feature, in every individual of every nation whatever; and which, if strictly analysed, will be found as much to distinguish him from all other individuals, as the features of his face. The Greek physiologists attempted the outline of a classification, and began by studying the individual varieties; and denominated them idiosyncrasies, or peculiarities of constitution. They beheld, as every one must behold in the present day, for nature is ever the same, one man so irascible that you cannot accidentally tread on his toe, or even touch his elbow, without putting him into a rage, another so full of wit and humour, that he would rather lose his friend, than repress his joke; a third, on the contrary, so dull and heavy, that you might as well attempt to move a mile-stone, and possessing withal so little imagination, that the delirium of a fever would never raise him to the regions of a brilliant fancy. They beheld one man for ever courting enterprise and danger; another distinguished for comprehensive judgment, and sagacity of intellect; one peculiarly addicted to wine, a second to gallantry, and a third to both; one generous to profligacy, another frugal to meanness. (Book of Nature, 3 vols. 8vo. London, 1826.)

12. It is laid down, says another writer, both by Gall and Spurzheim, as the foundation of their doctrines, that the nature of man, like that of all other created beings, is determinate; and that the faculties with which he is endowed are innate; that is, that they are implanted in him at his first formation, and are not the result of merely the external circumstances in which he may afterwards happen to be placed. This opinion is by no means at variance with that of Locke; who argues only against the innateness of ideas, and not of the faculties or capacities of receiving ideas; many of these peculiarities are unquestionably derived from the parent, and are observed to prevail in certain families, and to descend through several successive generations. Dr. Gall was struck, even when a boy, with the diversities of disposition and of character among his brothers and sisters and the companions with whom he was educated. He remarked that each excelled in a particular study, or was distinguished by a peculiar turn of mind. One was noted for the beauty of his hand-writing, another for his quickness at arithmetic, a third for his aptitude in learning languages, a fourth for remembering every thing he read in history. This diversity was apparent in all that they did. Thus, the style of

composition of the one was remarkable for its flowing and elegant periods; of another, for its baldness and dryness; of a third, for its condensation and vigour. Many displayed talents for arts which had never been taught them: they excelled perhaps in drawing, or in the execution of works of mechanism. Some sought for amusement in noisy sports, others preferred cultivating their gardens; a few placed their chief delight in rambling through fields and forests, and in collecting birds, insects, and flowers. One was of a social and affectionate disposition; another was selfish and reserved; a third was fickle and not to be depended upon. (Sup. Ency. Brit. Art Cranioscopy.)

13. Each individual, says a third writer, is so organized, that his highest health, his greatest progressive improvement, and his permanent happiness, depend upon the due cultivation of all his physical, intellectual, and moral faculties, or elements of his nature; upon their being called into action at a proper period of his life, and being afterwards temperately exercised, according to his strength and capacity. (Mr. Owen.) The exercise of those powers which are the most elevated and capacious, afford the greatest sum of felicity.

14. The right association of the peculiar qualities of many affords the highest enjoyments to each.

15. Hence the corporeal, intellectual, and moral wants of the members of a primary association, require, that in order to supply what is needful for their gratification, production and distribution should be divided into many branches, and these again be separated into many divisions. For the greater the division of labour, under certain limitations, the higher is the degree to which any of the qualities of the members can be carried, by the exclusive attention devoted to their developement. The division of labour, says Adam Smith, so far as it can be introduced, occasions in every art a proportionable increase of the productive powers of labour. The separation of different trades and employments from one another, seems to have taken place in consequence of this advantage. This separation, too, is generally carried farthest in those countries which enjoy the highest degree of industry and improvement; what is the work of one man, in a rude state of society, being generally that of several in an improved one. (Wealth of Nations.) The not very complicated business of making a ship-block, says Mr. Gray, requires, by the old method of the various operations being performed by one man, from two to three hours' labour; while, by the almost miraculous powers of the extensive division of employment, aided by proper machinery, the same effect is produced in the Portsmouth dockyard in the incredibly short space of two or three minutes. (Social System.)

PRODUCTION.

15. Had mankind from the creation lived according to the divine will, it cannot be doubted men's whole existence would have been one uninterrupted scene of enjoyment. Although this is not now the case, a high degree of felicity yet remains for us, if we make the best use of the means within our power. This will be most compendiously attained, by production being exclusively directed to those things which best promote men's corporeal, intellectual, and moral welfare. Such as have not this tendency, mankind are better without, all the labour devoted to their acquisition being mis-spent time; and whilst the productive powers of society are uncontrolled by a government, it cannot but happen, in a less or greater degree, that men's powers are misapplied.

6 use

17. A primary association will be best constituted, by allowing a sufficient number of persons for the non-productive class; and by the productive class attending to the soil, climate, &c., of their country, and so aiming at managing the natural riches under their command, as to produce what is sufficient for home consumption as well as for exportation, that by the latter they may be enabled to import such foreign productions as may be required; care being taken that all, as far as possible, this world as not abusing it:'-the greater the quantity of wealth produced, and the more equitably it is interchanged, the greater will be the general prosperity. The quantity of land employed in any other way than that which is most suitable for providing food, clothing, and habitation for the population, so that their corporeal, intellectual, and moral faculties may be brought to the highest state of perfection of which they are susceptible, is so much land lost; and the combination of labour and land being the sole source of wealth, if the labour is not associated so perfectly as it might be, the land can never produce all the good it is capable of affording, from the attention of mankind not being properly directed to the cultivation of the best productions, in the best manner. Hence, besides the privation to society of the blessings it might enjoy, from the right cultivation of the faculties of many of its members, it experiences the total loss of others, by a less number being called into existence, than would be born under a right system.

18. Polybius tells us, says Dr. Wallace, that there was such a plenty of provisions in the north of Italy, in his time, that a traveller was well entertained at an inn with all the necessaries he wanted, and seldom paid more than a quarter of an obolus, less than one third of a penny sterling. How cheap and abundant must provisions have been; and how easily

might a family have been maintained in such a situation! And how easily might a family be maintained still; what a prodigious quantity of food might be raised, and how cheap would provisions be in Great Britain, were all, or the greatest part of those who are at present employed in procuring ornaments, as industrious in raising grain and breeding cattle, as they are in providing toys and administering to luxury. The world in general must have fewer or more inhabitants, in proportion as luxury and a delicate taste, or as simplicity of manners prevails, and as the arts necessary for providing food are less or more industriously cultivated. The number of people, in every country, depends greatly on its political maxims and institutious, concerning the divisions of the lands. (On the Numbers of Mankind.) In most parts of Switzerland, sumptuary laws are or were in force, to banish every thing that had the appearance of excess. No dancing was allowed except on particular occasions; silk, lace, and several other articles of luxury, were totally prohibited in some of the cantons; and even the headdress of the ladies was subject to regulations.

purposes.

19. The commodities, says another writer, that substantially contribute to the subsistence of the human species, form a very short catalogue: they demand from us but a slender portion of industry. If the labour necessarily required to produce them, were equitably divided among the poor; and, still more, if it were equally divided among all, each man's share of labour would be light, and his portion of leisure would be ample. There was a time when this leisure would have been of small comparative value; it is to be hoped, that the time will come, when it will be applied to the most important Those hours which are not required for the production of the necessaries of life, may be devoted to the cultivation of the understanding, the enlarging our stock of knowledge, the refining our taste, and thus opening to us new and more exquisite sources of enjoyment. A state of cultivated equality is that state, which in speculation and theory appears most consonant to the nature of man, and most conducive to the extensive diffusion of felicity. (Wm. Godwin.) Guthrie, speaking of the Pelew islanders, says, that except a few rupacks, there is but little subordination of rank. The equality of station which appears among them, and ignorance of those luxuries which civilization introduces, proves no inconsiderable source of their happiness: human nature here shines in most amiable colours; men appear as brethren; uninformed, and unenlightened, they grasp at nothing more than competency and health. Linked together as in one common cause, they mutually support each other: courteous, affable, gentle, and humane, their little state is cemented in bonds of perfect harmony. (Guthrie's Geog. and Univ. Hist.)

20. Political economists, says Combe, have never dreamt that the world is arranged on the principle of supremacy of the moral sentiments and intellect, and consequently, that, to render man happy, his leading pursuits must be such as will exercise and gratify these powers; and that his life will necessarily be miserable, if devoted entirely to the production of wealth. They have proceeded on the notion that the accumulation of wealth is the summum bonum; but all history teaches that national happiness does not increase in proportion to national riches; and until they shall perceive and teach, that intelligence and morality are the foundation of all lasting prosperity, they will never interest the great body of mankind, nor give a valuable direction to their efforts. If the views contained in the present essay be sound, it will become a leading object with future masters, to demonstrate the necessity of civilized man limiting his physical and increasing his moral and intellectual occupations, as the only means of saving himself from ceaseless punishment, under the natural laws. The idea of men in general being taught natural philosophy, anatomy, and physiology, political economy, and the other sciences that expound the natural laws, has been sneered at as utterly absurd and ridiculous. But I would ask, in what occupations are human beings so urgently engaged, that they have no leisure to bestow on the study of the Creator's laws? (Constitution of Man.) It is therefore impolitic in a government to allow its people too intently to follow unwholesome occupations, particularly those which require confinement in close factories, to prepare goods for foreign nations, when they might be better employed in the agricultural or other improvement of their own country; for, although one nation should be equally anxious for the welfare of another as for its own, all men being brothers; yet, as a nation can only control its own concerns, and not interfere with the internal concerns of another, the proper provision for its own sons is clearly its paramount duty.

21. Secondary associations should therefore be formed for the necessary branches and divisions of production, as well as for those matters in which the non-productive classes are concerned; and every member should be desirous of attaining that situation, where his peculiar qualities may be brought most beneficially into operation (Mat. xxv. 15; 1 Cor. vii. 7.); thus following the example of the Divine Being, who has set the members every one of them in the' corporeal body, as it hath pleased him,' how incomparably to its advantage need not be insisted on. Every work is thus executed in the best manner and with the least labour. Plutarch, speaking of the public edifices and other works of the Athenians, says, that every art had a number of the lower people ranged in proper subordi