That under such circumstances the Catholic faith did not become wholly extinct in Great Britain can be satisfactorily accounted for only by ascribing its preservation to the overruling guidance of its Divine Founder. This barbarous persecution was carried on without intermission or abatement throughout the whole course of the eighteenth century; and it required the fear inspired by the American War of Independence, and the dread of the contagious influence of the French Revolution, to extort from either statesmen or high-church functionaries any amelioration of the Penal Laws directed against Catholics.

$ 330. Protestantism in Scotland.

J. Knox, Hist. of the Reform. of Scotland (till 1567), London, 1664, f. and often. D. Calderwood, Hist. of the Kirk of Scotland, London, 1678, fol., Edinb., 1845, 7 vols. Gil. Stuart, History of the Establishment of the Reformation in Scotland, London, 1780, 4to; and The History of Scotland from the Establishment of the Reformation to the Death of Queen Mary. His object in this was to defend that unfortunate princess against Dr. Robertson and others. G. Cook, History of the Reformation in Scotland, Edinburgh, 1811, 3 vols., 8vo; and History of the Church of Scotland, 3 vols., 8vo, 1815. Wm. Bradshaw, English Puritanism, containing the main opinions of the rigidest sort of those that went by that name in the realm of England, London, 1605 (Lat. trans., Puritanismus Anglicanus, Frcf., 1610). Wm. Robertson, History of Scotland, Edinburgh, 1759, 2 vols. He passed over the earlier periods as "dark and fabulous." (Germ. tr., Brunswick, 2 pts.) Keith (Bishop), History of the Affairs of Church and State in Scotland, Edin., 1734, fol. G. Chalmers, Life of Mary, Queen of Scots, Lond., 1818, 2 vols., 4to; 1822, 3 vols., 8vo. P. F. Tytler, The History of Scotland, Edin., 1828-1843, 9 vols. M. Laing, Hist. of Scotland, 4 vols.; remarkable only for its partiality and attacks upon the character of the unfortunate Mary. Her great defender, Prince Labanoff, Recueil des Lettres de Marie Stuart, London, 1844, 7 vols., 8vo; from which Rev. Donald McLeod drew the Life of Mary, Queen of Scots, New York, 1857. M. Teulet, Papiers d' Etat relatifs à l'Histoire de l'Ecosse, Paris, 1851-1860, 3 vols., 4to; 1862, 5 vols., 8vo. Miss Agnes Strickland, Lives of the Queens of Scotland, Edin., 1850-1859, 8 vols., 8vo. J. Cunningham, Church History of Scotland, 2 vols. (from a Presbyterian point of view). Geo. Grub, Eccl. Hist. of Scotland, 4 vols. (from an Episcopalian point of view). Burton, Hist. of Scotland (with numerous notices of eccl. affairs). T. Innes, Law of Creeds in Scotland. J. Skinner, Eccl. Hist. of Scotland, London, 1818, 2 vols., 8vo. Analecta Scotia, illustr. the civil, eccl., and lit. Hist. of Scotland, Edinb., 1834-1837, 12 vols., 8vo. J. A. Froude, Hist. of England, New York, 1865, 12 vols. Macaulay, Hist. of England. Stanley (Dean of Westminster), Lectures on the Hist. of the Church of Scotland, New York, 1872. Wm. von Schütz, Mary Stuart, Mentz, 1839, 2 vols.; cf. concerning it Periodical of Historical Science, by Neander, year 1857. Hist. and Polit. Papers, Vol. I., p. 457 sq.; Vol. III. 696 sq. K. G. v. Rudloff, Hist. of the Reform. in Scotland, Berlin, 1847-1849, 2 vols. Kaslin, The Church of Scotland and her Relation to the State, Ham burg, 1852. W. M. Hetherington, Hist. of the Church of Scotland till 1843, 4th ed. Edinb., 1853, 8vo; 3rd ed., New York, 1844, 8vo.

The introduction of the Reformation into Scotland was accompanied by deeds of exceptional atrocity. By an act of the Scotch parliament of 1525, the importation of books treating of Lutheranism was prohibited, and all persons forbidden to take any other means of giving publicity to the Reformer's teachings. Patrick Hamilton, Abbot of Ferne, during a stay in the cities of Wittenberg and Marburg, had become acquainted with the principles of Lutheranism, and after his return home disregarded the prohibition of parliament, and began to propagate the new heresy. He was arrested, tried, and burned at the stake, opposite St. Andrew's College, in February, 1528

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Of those who followed in his footsteps, and continued to spread the teachings of Luther, some, like him, expiated their offence at the stake, while others fled either to England or the Continent. These cruelties, coming with ill grace from a corrupt clergy, who were themselves the objects of public derision and contempt, still further roused the fury of their adversaries. who soon took a bloody vengeance.

The inhabitants of the country gradually divided themselves into two hostile parties, which came into direct collision with each other in the year 1546. On the 28th of February of this year, George Wishart, the most eloquent of the Scotch Reformers, was arrested by the orders of Cardinal Beaton, the powerful Archbishop of St. Andrew's, brought to trial, and burned at the stake. On the 29th of the following May, a number of the Reform party, headed by Norman Lesley, attacked and murdered the cardinal, and seized and plundered his palace of St. Andrew's, which became temporarily the stronghold of the Reformers.

But of all those who preached the teachings of the Reformation in Scotland, none achieved such successes as the impetuous and eloquent John Knox.2 Brought up a Catholic, and educated for the service of the Church, he took priest's orders some time before 1530, and about twelve years later (1542) openly professed himself a Protestant. Hearing of the assassination of Cardinal Beaton, he gave it as his opinion that the deed had been of divine inspiration. He took up his residence at the castle of St. Andrew's, after its capture by the Reformers, and in 1547 began his career as a preacher in the parish church of the same name by an intemperate denunciation of the errors of Popery. When the fortress was taken by the royal troops, Knox, being one of the captured prisoners, was conducted across to France, where he spent nearly two years in the galleys. Returning to England, he again began to preach, was appointed one of the chaplains to Edward VI., fell in love, and was married. When Mary succeeded to the throne of England, Knox, with others of the Reformers, withdrew to the Continent. He spent some time at Dieppe, Geneva, and Frankfort-on-the-Main, made a short visit to Scotland to encourage the Reformers (1555), and returned to Geneva (1556), where he passed nearly three years in charge of a church, and became a thoroughgoing Calvinist.

Affairs in Scotland seemed to conspire to favour the Reformers. The weak and vain Earl of Arran, who became regent on the death of James V., in 1542, was quite content to allow the innovators to

1 It should be stated, however, that Wishart's complicity in a plot entered into by the more zealous of the Reformers for the assassination of Card. Beaton, was the immediate occasion of his arrest.

Th. M'Crie, Lives of John Knox and Andrew Melville, Edinburgh, 1811, 2 vols., and frequently ed.; in an abridgment by Plank, Göttingen, 1817 (panegyric). Weber, John Knox and the Scottish Church (Studies and Criticisms, nro. 4). Brandes, John Knox, the Reformer of Scotland, Elberfeld, 1862. (Lives and Select Writings of the Fathers and Founders of the Reformed Church, Pt. X.)

have their own way, provided only the prosecution of their plans did not lead to open rebellion. When Mary succeeded to the throne, she saw herself condemned to be an idle spectator of the uninterrupted progress of the new teachings, which had been propagated chiefly by English refugees who sought an asylum in Scotland after the accession of Mary Tudor to the throne (1553), and of whom John Willock was the most distinguished. A Synod convened in Edinburgh in 1549 to provide measures for the removal of the ignorance and the correction of the morals of the Scottish clergy, but it was already too late to effect any good. Among his other labours, Knox occupied himself during his stay at Geneva in writing a work, published in 1558, entitled, "The First Blast of the Trumpet against the Mons.rous Regimen of Women," being a violent attack upon Mary of Guise, Regent of Scotland, and Mary Tudor, Queen of England.

From Geneva, Knox kept up an active correspondence with his partisans in Scotland, whom he counselled to employ force, should other means fail, for the suppression of an idolatrous worship and the overthrow of an idolatrous government. He was fond of repeating that, "by no other means were owls so effectually frightened away as by burning their nests." The passions of the multitude, which had been recently aroused by the burning of Walter Milne, an apostate priest, were still further inflamed when, in 1559, Knox was recalled to Scotland, and began to preach against the idolatry of the Mass and the veneration of images. The "rascal multitude," as Knox afterwards called those who only put his precepts into practice, roused to fury by the fiery denunciations he had launched against an idolatrous worship, proceeded to demolish the images and tear and trample under foot the pictures in the churches of the city of Perth, and sack and lay in ruins the houses of the Franciscan and Dominican friars, and the monastery of the Carthusians. Similar outrages were perpetrated in other cities of Scotland. The inauguration of the Reformed Religion was always preceded by the sacking of churches, the destruction of images, and the utter demolition of whatever in any way referred to the Mass, or had any connection with the veneration of saints. The Scottish Reformers, with a view to centralising their power, formed a covenant, which came to be known as the Congregation, and its leaders as Lords of the Congregation. Between that portion of the population represented by this body and assisted by Elizabeth, Queen of England, and the adherents of the queen-regent, assisted by the King of France, a civil war of twelve months' duration was carried on, which was characterized by incidents of unusual atrocity. While the English troops were investing Edinburgh, the queen-regent died, after which both parties agreed to a truce, during which it was arranged to summon a parliament, to whose action the settlement of their difficulties should be left. The parliament, which assembled in August, 1560, declared the Reformed the established religion of Scotland, and interdicted Catholic worship. When, therefore, Mary Stuart, after the death of her husband, Francis II., Dauphin of France,

returned to Scotland, August 21, 1561, to enter upon the government of that kingdom, she found her religion, to which she was devotedly attached, abolished, and the penalty of confiscation and death decreed against anyone who should hear Mass. The old Catholic faith had been replaced by a rigid Calvinism, and the episcopal form of church government by that of Presbyters, belonging to the "Community of the Saints." This democratic system was applied to politics as well as religion. Under these circumstances, Mary Stuart, while refusing to formally concede all the claims put forward by the victorious Reformers, was, nevertheless, content to leave matters as she found them, and even condescended to gratify their wishes in everything consistent with her duty as a Catholic and her dignity as a queen. Disregarding the counsels of the more zealous of the Roman Catholics, she selected her advisers from among the Protestants, and appointed as her minister of state her illegitimate brother, James Stuart, an ambitious and able statesman, whom she afterwards created Earl of Murray. But, while granting freedom of worship to others, she claimed for herself the liberty of hearing Mass said in the chapel of the castle of Edinburgh, a concession which Knox and others of the extreme Reformers denounced as an offence against the law of God, which would inevitably draw down the divine vengeance upon the whole land. “I had rather," said Knox, "face ten thousand enemies than know that one Mass is said in Scotland." So violent were his denunciations, and so effective in their results, that when Mary made her solemn entrance into Edinburgh, the city council issued a proclamation, expelling from the city "the whole wicked rabble of Antichrist and the Pope, to wit, priests, monks, lay-brothers, fornicators, and adulterers." While the manners of Mary's court were not of that stern and gloomy severity which the Scotch Reformers affected, it must also be admitted that, in their judgments of her, they were harsh and unjust, rather than equitable and tolerant. Knox, who was fully alive to the impression which her singular beauty and attractive address would make upon those with whom she came in contact, resolved to counteract any influence she might derive from her personal graces and charm of manner by coarse invectives against her policy and indelicate insinuations against her character. Her marriage with her cousin, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, son of the Earl of Lennox, whose whole family were reputed zealous Catholics, he had the indecent effrontery to liken to the union between Ahab and Jezebel. This marriage,

which was celebrated at Holyrood, July 29, 1565, though perfectly honourable, was disastrous in its consequences. It was the occasion of a revolt, headed by Murray and the Hamiltons, who, disappointed in their hopes of assistance from the Protestants, were

"The government and discipline of the Church rest, on the Presbyterian theory, with collective bodies of teaching (or clerical) elders, generally called ministers,' and ruling or (lay) elders, who are generally meant when 'elders' are spoken of, gathered in Synods, and not with individual persons, as in the Episcopal system, or with individual congregations, as in the Independent system." Blunt, Dict. of Heresies, &c., art. "Presbyterians." (TR.)

defeated by the forces of the queen, who had taken the field in person against them. Mary now began to awake to the fact that her marriage with Darnley had been a mistake. His morals were dissolute, his arrogance intolerant, and his ambition boundless. But, while he possessed all the vices, he had none of the virtues of a strong character. He had received from Mary the title of king; but, not content with this, demanded that the crown should be secured to him for life, and that in the event of the queen's dying without issue, it should descend to his heirs. His demands having been refused, he entered into a conspiracy with Murray, Morton, and others of the Protestant leaders, for the murder of Riccio, Mary's secretary, who, he persuaded them, was the real obstacle to the accomplishment of his wishes. Entering the queen's apartments, the assassins, headed by the king, seized the poor Italian, dragged him into the antechamber, and despatched him with more than fifty wounds (March 9, 1556). Speaking of this atrocious and cowardly murder, the pious Knox said it was "a just act and worthy of all praise." The queen succeeded, by kind attentions and demonstrations of love, in detaching her husband from the conspirators; but, although her affection for him seemed to revive as the time of her confinement drew near, she was again soon alienated from him. Darnley was taken ill of the smallpox at Glasgow towards the middle of January, 1567. He was removed thence to Edinburgh, where he was lodged in a small house beside the Kirk of the Field. This house was blown up by gunpowder on the night of the 9th of February, and Darnley's lifeless body found in the neighbouring garden. Notwithstanding that Mary visited him daily while here, spending some whole nights under the same roof, and showing him every attention and kindness, she has been accused of complicity in his murder, although no satisfactory evidence of her guilt has ever been produced. Bothwell was generally believed to have been at the bottom of the plot, and Mary's marriage to him, only three months after the murder of her late husband, in spite of the fact that she had been abducted by violence, and her consent extorted by force, gave colour of truth to the damaging suspicions that were put in circulation by her enemies.

This fatal step was speedily followed by disaster. A faction, including many of the nobility of Scotland, and headed by Earl Murray, rose in arms; and unable to hold out against them, she was forced to surrender herself a prisoner into their hands. She was prevailed upon while a captive to sign an act of abdication in favour of her son, James, then only thirteen months of age, which she did at Lochleven, July 24th. Murray was named regent during the minority of the young king, and bound himself by oath to extirpate the enemies of the Gospel from Scotland. Accused of adultery and complicity in the assassination of Darnley, and vanquished by her enemies, Mary committed the fatal blunder of accepting the proffered hospitality of Elizabeth of England, her most inveterate enemy, from whose hands she never escaped.1

1Fred. v. Raumer, Elizabeth and Mary, Lps., 1836